which　labour　is　directed；　determines　its　productive　powers。　I
  therefore　would　caution　my　fellow　labourers　not　to　limit　the　term
  labour　to　the　operations　of　the　hands。
  Before　many　of　our　most　useful　machines　and　instruments
  could　be　invented；　a　vast　deal　of　knowledge　gathered　in　the
  progress　of　the　world　by　many　generations　was　necessary。　At
  present　also　a　great　number　of　persons　possessed　of　different
  kinds　of　knowledge　and　skill　must　combine　and　cooperate；　although
  they　have　never　entered　into　any　express　contract　for　this
  purpose；　before　many　of　our　most　powerful　machines　can　be
  completed　and　before　thy　can　be　used。　The　labour　of　the
  draughtsman　is　as　necessary　to　construct　a　ship　as　the　labour　of
  the　man　who　fastens　her　planks　together。　The　labour　of　the
  engineer；　who　〃in　his　mind's　eye〃　sees　the　effect　of　every
  contrivance；　and　who　adapts　the　parts　of　a　complicated　machine　to
  each　other；　is　as　necessary　to　the　completion　of　that　machine　as
  the　man　who　casts　or　fits　any　part　of　it；　without　being　sensible
  of　the　purpose　for　which　the　whole　is　to　serve。　In　like　manner
  the　labour　and　the　knowledge　of　many　different　persons　must　be
  combined　before　almost　any　product　intended　for　consumption　can
  be　brought　to　market。　The　knowledge　and　skill　of　the　master
  manufacturer；　or　of　the　man　who　plans　and　arranges　a　productive
  operation；　who　must　know　the　state　of　the　markets　and　the
  qualities　of　different　materials；　and　who　has　some　tact　in　buying
  and　selling；　are　just　as　necessary　for　the　complete　success　of
  any　complicated　operation　as　the　skill　of　the　workmen　whose　hands
  actually　alter　the　shape　and　fashion　of　these　materials。　Far　be
  it；　therefore；　from　the　manual　labourer；　while　he　claims　the
  reward　due　to　his　own　productive　powers；　to　deny　its　appropriate
  reward　to　any　other　species　of　labour；　whether　it　be　of　the　head
  or　the　hands。　The　labour　and　skill　of　the　contriver；　or　of　the
  man　who　arranges　an　adapts　a　whole；　are　as　necessary　as　the
  labour　and　skill　of　him　who　executes　only　a　part；　and　they　must
  be　paid　accordingly。
  I　must；　however；　add　that　it　is　doubtful　whether　one　species
  of　labour　is　more　valuable　than　another；　certainly　it　is　not　more
  necessary。　But　because　those　who　have　been　masters。　Planners；
  contrivers；　etc。；　have　in　general　also　been　capitalists；　and　have
  also　had　a　command　over　the　labour　of　those　who　have　worked　with
  their　hands；　their　labour　has　been　paid　as　much　too　high　as
  common　labour　has　been　under　paid。　The　wages　of　the　master；
  employer　or　contriver　has　been　blended　with　the　profit　of　the
  capitalists；　and　he　may　probably　be　still　disposed　to　claim　the
  whole　as　only　the　proper　reward　of　his　exertions。　On　the　other
  hand；　manual　labourers；　oppressed　by　the　capitalist；　have　never
  been　paid　high　enough；　and　even　now　are　more　disposed　to　estimate
  their　own　deserts　rather　by　what　they　have　hitherto　received　than
  by　what　they　produce。　This　sort　of　prejudice　makes　it；　and　will
  long　make　it；　difficult　even　for　labourers　themselves　to
  apportion　with　justice　the　social　reward　or　wages　of　each
  individual　labourer。　No　statesman　can　accomplish　this；　nor　ought
  the　labourers　to　allow　any　statesman　to　interfere　in　it。　The
  labour　is　theirs；　the　produce　ought　to　be　theirs；　and　they　alone
  ought　to　decide　how　much　each　deserves　of　the　produce　all。　While
  each　labourer　claims　his　own　reward；　let　him　cheerfully　allow　the
  just　claims　of　every　other　labourer；　but　let　him　never　assent　to
  the　strange　doctrine　that　the　food　he　eats　and　the　instruments　he
  uses；　which　are　the　work　of　his　own　hands；　become　endowed；　by
  merely　changing　proprietors；　with　productive　power　greater　than
  his；　and　that　the　owner　of　them　is　entitled　to　a　more　abundant
  reward　than　the　labour；　skill　and　knowledge　which　produce　and　use
  them。
  Masters；　it　is　evident；　are　labourers　as　well　as　their
  journeymen。　In　this　character　their　interest　is　precisely　the
  same　as　that　of　their　men。　But　they　are　also　either　capitalist；
  or　the　agents　of　the　capitalist；　and　in　this　respect　their
  interest　is　decidedly　opposed　to　the　interest　of　their　workmen。
  As　the　contrivers　and　enterprising　undertakers　of　new　works；　they
  may　be　called　employers　as　well　as　labourers；　and　they　deserve
  the　respect　of　the　labourer。　As　capitalist；　and　as　the　agents　of
  he　capitalist；　they　are　merely　middlemen；　oppressing　the
  labourer；　and　deserving　of　anything　but　his　respect。　The　labourer
  should　know　and　bear　this　in　mind。　Other　people　should　also
  remember　it；　for　it　is　indispensable　to　correct　reasoning　to
  distinguish　between　these　two　characters　of　all　masters。　If　by
  combining　the　journeymen　were　to　drive　masters；　who　are　a　useful
  class　of　labourers；　out　of　the　country；　if　they　were　to　force
  abroad　the　skill　and　ingenuity　which　contrive；　severing　them　from
  the　hands　which　execute；　they　would　do　themselves　and　the
  remaining　inhabitants　considerable　mischief。　If；　on　the　contrary；
  by　combining　they　merely　incapacitate　the　masters　from　obtaining
  any　profit　on　their　capital；　and　merely　prevent　them　from
  completing　the　engagements　they　have　contracted　with　the
  capitalist；　they　will　do　themselves　and　the　country　incalculable
  service。　They　may　reduce　or　destroy　altogether　the　profit　of　the
  idle　capitalist　　and　from　the　manner　in　which　capitalists　have
  treated　labourers；　even　within　our　own　recollection；　they　have　no
  claim　on　the　gratitude　of　the　labourer　　but　they　will　augment
  the　wages　and　rewards　of　industry；　and　will　give　to　genius　and
  skill　their　due　share　of　the　national　produce。　They　will　also
  increase　prodigiously　the　productive　power　of　the　country　by
  increasing　the　number　of　skilled　labourers。　The　most　successful
  and　widest　spread　possible　combination　to　obtain　an　augmentation
  of　wages　would　have　no　other　injurious　effect　than　to　reduce　the
  incomes　of　those　who　live　on　profit　and　interest；　and　who　have　no
  just　claim　but　custom　to　any　share　of　the　national　produce。
  It　has　indeed　been　said　by　some　sapient　legislators；　both
  Lords　and　Commoners；　that　the　journeymen　will　do　themselves
  incalculable　mischief　by　driving　capital　out　of　the　country；　and
  one　of　the　reasons　urged　for　the　new　law　was　that　it　would
  prevent　the　journeymen　injuring　themselves。　Whenever　the　devil
  wants　to　do　mischief　he　assumes　the　garb　of　holiness；　and
  whenever　a　certain　class　of　persons　wish　to　commit　a　more　than
  usually　flagrant　violation　of　justice　it　is　always　done　in　the
  name　of　humanity。　If　the　labourers　are　disposed　blindly　to　injure
  themselves　I　see　no　reason　for　the　legislature　interfering　to
  prevent　them；　except　as　a　farmer　watches　over　the　health　of　his
  cattle；　or　a　West　India　planter　looks　after　the　negroes　because
  they　are　his　property；　and　bring　him　a　large　profit。　The
  journeymen；　however；　know　their　own　interest　better　than　it　is
  known　to　the　legislator；　and　they　would　be　all　the　richer　if
  there　were　not　an　idle　capitalist　in　the　country。　I　shall　not
  enter　into　any　investigation　of　the　origin　of　this　opinion　that
  the　workmen　will　injure　themselves　by　driving　away　capital；　but
  it　would　not　be　difficult　to　show　that　it　springs　from　the　false
  theory　I　have　opposed；　and　that　it　is　based　on　a　narrow
  experience。　Because　there　are　a　few　instances　of　political　and
  religious　persecution；　driving　both　masters　and　journeymen；　or　a
  large　quantity　of　national　stock　of　skilled　labour；　from
  different　countries；　greatly；　I　admit；　to　the　injury；　and　justly
  so；　of　the　remaining　inhabitants　who　permitted　or　practised　this
  persecution；　it　has　been　asserted　that　this　injury　was　caused　by
  the　banishment；　not　of　the　men　but　of　the　capital；　and　it　being；
  therefore；　now　concluded　that　the　proceedings　of　the　workmen　will
  in　like　manner　banish　capital　from　this　country　it　has　been
  affirmed　that　they　will　injure　both　themselves　and　the　rest　of
  the　inhabitants。　But　they　carry　on　neither　political　nor
  religious　persecution；　and　it　is　somewhat　preposterous　in　the
  race　of　politicians；　by　way；　perhaps；　of　throwing　a　veil　over
  their　own　crimes；　to　attribute　to　the　actions　of　the　workmen　the
  same　consequences　as　have　been　produced　by　some　of　the　absurd　and
  cruel　proceedings　of　their　own　class。　If　the　workmen　do　not
  frighten　away　the　skill　of　the　contriver　and　the　master　　and
  where　can　that　be　put　to　so　good　a　use　as　where　there　are　plenty
  of　skilful　hands　　and　even　if　they　should；　the　wide　spread　of
  education　among　the　mechanics　and　artisans　will　soon　repair　the
  loss；　they　will　frighten　away　no　other　part　of　the　national
  advantages。　The　merest　tyro　in　political　economy　knows　that　the
  capitalist　cannot　export　any　great　quantity　of　food；　clothing　and
  machines　from　this　country；　nor　even　the　gold　and　silver　which
  forms　the　current　coin　of　the　realm；　to　any　advantage；　either　he
  must　bring　back　an　equivalent；　which　returns　him　a　profit　when
  consumed　here；　or　he　must　carry　with　him　those　skilled　labourers
  who　have　hitherto　produced　him　his　profit　as　they　have　consumed
  his　food　and　used　his　instruments　and　machines。　There　is　not　a
  political　injury　on　the　one　hand　and　both　masters　and　workmen　on
  the　other；　but　on　the　one　side　is　the　labourer　and　on　the　other
  the　capitalist；　and　however　successful　the　workmen　m