instantly　to　answer　these　questions；　and　I　only　add　my　answers
  because　they　lead　to　some　conclusions　different　from　those
  generally　adopted。
  It　is　admitted　by　those　who　contend　most　strenuously　for　the
  claims　of　capital　that　all　instruments　and　machines　are　the
  produce　of　labour。　They　add；　however；　that　they　are　the　produce
  of　previous　labour；　and　are　entitled　to　profit；　on　account　of
  having　been　saved　or　stored　up。　But　the　manufacture　of
  instruments　and　tools　is　quite　as　uninterrupted　as　the
  manufacture　of　food　and　clothing。　They　are　not　all　consumed　or
  used　within　a　year；　but　they　are　brought　into　use　as　soon　as
  possible　after　they　are　made。　Nobody　who　manufactures　them　stores
  them　up；　nor　does　he　make　them　for　this　purpose。　As　long　as　they
  are　merely　the　result　of　previous　labour；　and　are　not　applied　to
  their　respective　uses　by　labourers；　they　do　not　repay　the　expense
  of　making　them。　It　is　only　when　they　are　so　applied　that　they
  bring　any　profit。　They　are　made　solely　for　the　use　of　the
  labourer；　and　directly　they　come　into　his　hands　they　return　or
  repay　the　capitalist；　the　sum　they　cost　him；　and　over　and　above
  this　the　labourer　must　give　him　an　additional　sum　corresponding
  to　the　rate　of　profit　in　the　country。　It　is　plainly　not　the
  previous　creation　of　these　things　which　entitles　them　to　profit；
  for　most　of　them　diminish　in　value　from　being　kept。　A　man　must
  pay　also　as　much　profit　for　the　use　of　an　instrument　in
  proportion　to　the　labour　of　making　it；　whether　it　be　like　sewing
  needles；　of　which　many　are　used　and　made　in　the　course　of　a　week；
  or　like　a　ship；　or　a　steam　engine；　one　of　which　lasts　several
  years。　Fixed　capital　does　not　derive　its　utility　from　previous；
  but　present　labour；　and　does　not　bring　its　owner　a　profit　because
  it　has　been　stored　up；　but　because　it　is　a　means　of　obtaining　a
  command　over　labour。
  The　production　of　fixed　capital　cannot　be　attributed　to
  circulating　capital；　in　the　ordinary　sense；　but　certainly　those
  who　make　instruments　must　be　confident　they　will　be　able　to
  obtain　food；　or　they　would　never　think　of　making　instruments。　The
  smith；　while　he　is　making　or　mending　the　farmer's　ploughshare；
  trusts　to　the　farmer　to　do　his　part　in　procuring　a　supply　of
  food；　and　the　farmer；　while　he　tills　his　fields；　trusts　to　the
  smith　to　prepare　for　him　the　necessary　instruments。　These
  instruments　are　not　the　produce　of　circulating　capital　and　of
  labour；　but　of　labour　alone；　and　of　the　labour　of　two　or　more
  co…existing　persons。　All　fixed　capital；　not　only　in　the　first
  instance；　as　is　generally　admitted；　but　in　every　stage　of
  society；　at　every　period　in　the　history　of　man；　is　the　creation
  of　labour　and　of　skill；　of　different　species　of　labour　and　skill
  certainly；　but　of　nothing　more　than　labour　and　skill。
  After　any　instruments　have　been　made；　what　do　they　effect？
  Nothing。　On　the　contrary；　they　begin　to　rust　or　decay　unless　used
  or　applied　by　labour。　The　most　perfect　instrument　which　the
  cunning　hand　of　man　can　make　is　not　instinct　with　life；　and　it
  constantly　needs　the　directing　hand　of　its　creator；　or　of　some
  other　labourer。　An　artist　may　indeed　make　an　automaton；　or　a
  timepiece；　which　will　move　for　a　certain　period　without　further
  labour；　but　the　motion　he　gives　it　is；　in　this　case；　the　final
  object　and　aim　of　labour；　and　the　instruments　are　not　called
  fixed　capital；　because　they　are　not　used　for　further　production。
  The　automaton　may　be　exhibited　by　its　owner　for　money；　and　the
  timepiece；　if　employed　to　determine　the　longitude　of　a　ship；　may
  be　a　portion　of　fixed　capital；　useful　in　that　production　which　is
  occasioned　by　commerce。　In　this　case；　however；　there　is　an
  observer　required；　and　it　is　by　his　labour　and　skill；　he　making
  use　of　the　timepiece；　that　the　ship's　place　is　ascertained。
  Whether　an　instrument　shall　be　regarded　as　productive　capital　or
  not　depends　entirely　on　its　being　used；　or　not；　by　some
  productive　labourer。
  The　most　perfect　instruments　ever　made　by　labour　require；　as
  in　the　case　of　a　timepiece；　a　peculiar　skill　to　render　them
  productive。　A　ship；　for　example；　is　undoubtedly　a　noble
  instrument；　as　admirable　and　useful　a　portion　of　fixed　capital　as
  the　hand　of　man　ever　created；　or　his　skill　ever　employed。　By　it
  the　wealth　of　Great　Britain　has　been　and　will　be　augmented。　But
  our　navy　would　lie　and　rot　unless　care　were　taken　to　preserve　it；
  and　the　ships　when　turned　adrift　would　be　bruised　by　the　waves；
  the　winds　or　the　rocks　unless　they　were　guided　by　seamen。　By　the
  skill　acquired　during　many　years'　experience；　and　by　much　labour
  guided　by　this　skill；　a　ship　is　built。　It　would　trouble　me　to
  enumerate　the　various　species　of　industry　which　are　necessary　to
  prepare　her　for　sea。　There　is　the　skill　and　labour　of　the
  draughtsman；　of　the　working　shipwright；　of　the　carpenter；　the
  mast　maker；　the　sail　maker；　the　cooper；　the　founder；　the　smith；
  the　coppersmith；　the　compass　maker；　etc。；　etc。；　but　there　is
  nothing　necessary　more　than　the　skill　and　labour　of　these
  different　persons。　After　she　is　made　ready　the　same　qualities
  watch　over　her；　check　the　first　indications　of　decay；　and　repair
  every　little　defect　occasioned　by　accident　and　time。　She　is　then；
  however；　of　no　use　unless　there　are　seamen　to　manage　her。　To
  conduct　her　safely　from　port　to　port；　and　from　hemisphere　to
  hemisphere；　a　great　deal　of　knowledge　of　the　winds　and　tides；　of
  the　phenomena　of　the　heavens；　and　of　the　laws　which　prevail　on
  the　surface　of　the　earth；　is　necessary；　and　only　when　this
  knowledge　is　united　with　great　skill；　and　carried　into　effect　by
  labour；　can　a　ship　be　safely　conducted　through　the　multitudes　of
  dangers　which　beset　her　course。　To　have　and　to　use　this　fixed
  capital；　knowledge；　labour　and　skill　are　necessary。　Without　these
  it　could　not　be　made；　and　when　it　would　be　less　productive　than
  the　clod　from　which　its　materials　spring；　or　from　which　they　are
  fashioned　by　the　hand　of　man。
  A　road　is　made　by　a　certain　quantity　of　labour；　and　is　then
  called　fixed　capital；　the　constant　repairs　it　needs；　however；　are
  a　continual　making；　and　the　expense　incurred　by　them　is　called
  circulating　capital。　But　neither　the　circulating　nor　the　fixed
  capital　return　any　profit　to　the　road　makers　unless　there　are
  persons　to　travel　over　the　road　or　make　a　further　use　of　their
  labour。　The　road　facilitates　the　progress　of　the　traveller；　and
  just　in　proportion　as　people　do　travel　over　it；　so　does　the
  labour　which　has　been　employed　on　the　road　become　productive　and
  useful。　One　easily　comprehends　why　both　these　species　of　labour
  should　be　paid　　why　the　road　maker　should　receive　some　of　the
  benefits　accruing　only　to　the　road　user；　but　I　do　not　comprehend
  why　all　these　benefits　should　go　to　the　road　itself　and　be
  appropriated　by　a　set　of　person　who　neither　make　nor　use　it；
  under　the　name　of　profit　for　their　capital。　One　is　almost　tempted
  to　believe　that　capital　is　a　sort　of　cabalistic　word；　like　Church
  or　State；　or　any　other　of　those　general　terms　which　are　invented
  by　those　who　fleece　the　rest　of　mankind　to　conceal　the　hand　that
  shears　them。　It　is　a　sort　of　idol　before　which　men　are　called
  upon　to　prostrate　themselves；　while　the　cunning　priest　from
  behind　the　altar；　profaning　the　God　whom　he　pretends　to　serve；
  and　mocking　those　sweet　sentiments　of　devotion　and　gratitude；　or
  those　terrible　emotions　of　fear　and　resentment；　one　or　the　other
  of　which　seems　common　to　the　whole　human　race；　as　they　are
  enlightened　and　wise；　or　ignorant　and　debased；　puts　forth　his
  hand　to　receive　and　appropriate　the　offerings　which　he　calls　for
  in　the　name　of　religion。
  A　steam　engine　also　is　a　most　complete　instrument；　but　alas！
  for　the　capitalist；　it　does　not　go　of　itself。　A　peculiar　skill　is
  required　to　make　it　and　put　it　up；　and　peculiar　skill　and　labour
  must　afterwards　direct　and　regulate　its　movements。　What　would　it
  produce　without　the　engineer？　To　the　stranger　who　did　not　possess
  the　engineer's　skill；　only　misery；　death　and　destruction。　Its
  vast　utility　does　not　depend　on　stored　up　iron　and　wood；　but　on
  that　practical　and　living　knowledge　of　the　powers　of　nature　which
  enables　some　men　to　construct；　and　others　to　guide　it。
  If　we　descend　to　more　minute　instruments；　and　consider　such
  as　are　guided　by　the　hand；　the　necessity　of　skill　and　labour；　and
  the　utter　worthlessness　of　capital　by　itself；　will　be　still　more
  obvious。　It　has　been　asked；　what　could　a　carpenter　effect　without
  his　hatchet　and　his　saw？　I　put　the　converse　of　the　question；　and
  ask　what　the　hatchet　and　saw　could　effect　without　the　carpenter。
  Rust　and　rottenness　must　be　the　answer。　A　plough　or　a　scythe　may
  be　made　with　the　most　cunning　art；　but　to　use　either　of　them　a
  man　must　have　a　droit　turn　of　the　hand；　or　a　peculiar　species　of
  skill。　The　shoemaker　who　can　thrust　awls　through　leather　with
  singular　dexterity　and　neatness　cannot　make　any　use　of　a
  watchmaker's　tools；　and　the　most　skilful　and　dexterous　maker　of
  plane；　saw　and　chisel　blades　would　find　it　difficult　to　construct
  with　them　any　of　that　furniture　which　the　cabinet　maker　forms
  with　so　much　dispatch　and　beautiful　effect。　Almost　every　species
  of　workman；　however；　from　having　acquired　a　certain　d