effected　by　the　soldiers；　the　Radicals；　or　the　Conservatives；　&c。
  The　new　laws　and　institutions　will　depend　on　the　interests　of　the
  triumphant　party　and　of　the　classes　which　have　assisted　itthe
  clergy　for　instance。
  If　the　revolution　has　triumphed　only　after　a　violent　struggle；　as
  was　the　case　with　the　French　Revolution；　the　victors　will　reject
  at　one　sweep　the　whole　arsenal　of　the　old　law。　　The　supporters　of
  the　fallen　regime　will　be　persecuted；　exiled；　or　exterminated。
  The　maximum　of　violence　in　these　persecutions　is　attained　when
  the　triumphant　party　is　defending　a　belief　in　addition　to　its
  material　interests。　　Then　the　conquered　need　hope　for　no　pity。
  Thus　may　be　explained　the　expulsion　of　the　Moors　from　Spain；　the
  autodafes　of　the　Inquisition；　the　executions　of　the
  Convention；　and　the　recent　laws　against　the　religious
  congregations　in　France。
  The　absolute　power　which　is　assumed　by　the　victors　leads　them
  sometimes　to　extreme　measures；　such　as　the　Convention's　decree
  that　gold　was　to　be　replaced　by　paper；　that　goods　were　to　be　sold
  at　determined　prices；　&c。　　Very　soon　it　runs　up　against　a　wall　of
  unavoidable　necessities；　which　turn　opinion　against　its　tyranny；
  and　finally　leave　it　defenceless　before　attack；　as　befell　at　the
  end　of　the　French　Revolution。　　The　same　thing　happened
  recently　to　a　Socialist　Australian　ministry　composed　almost
  exclusively　of　working…men。　　It　enacted　laws　so　absurd；　and
  accorded　such　privileges　to　the　trade　unions；　that　public　opinion
  rebelled　against　it　so　unanimously　that　in　three　months　it　was
  overthrown。
  But　the　cases　we　have　considered　are　exceptional。　　The　majority
  of　revolutions　have　been　accomplished　in　order　to　place　a　new
  sovereign　in　power。　　Now　this　sovereign　knows　very　well　that　the
  first　condition　of　maintaining　his　power　consists　in　not　too
  exclusively　favouring　a　single　class；　but　in　seeking　to
  conciliate　all。　　To　do　this　he　will　establish　a　sort　of
  equilibrium　between　them；　so　as　not　to　be　dominated　by　any　one　of
  these　classes。　　To　allow　one　class　to　become　predominant　is　to
  condemn　himself　presently　to　accept　that　class　as　his　master。
  This　law　is　one　of　the　most　certain　of　political　psychology。　　The
  kings　of　France　understood　it　very　well　when　they　struggled　so
  energetically　against　the　encroachments　first　of　the　nobility　and
  then　of　the　clergy。　　If　they　had　not　done　so　their　fate　would
  have　been　that　of　the　German　Emperors　of　the　Middle　Ages；　who；
  excommunicated　by　the　Pope；　were　reduced；　like　Henry　IV。　at
  Canossa；　to　make　a　pilgrimage　and　humbly　to　sue　for　the　Pope's
  forgiveness。
  This　same　law　has　continually　been　verified　during　the　course　of
  history。　　When　at　the　end　of　the　Roman　Empire　the　military　caste
  became　preponderant；　the　emperors　depended　entirely　upon　their
  soldiers；　who　appointed　and　deposed　them　at　will。
  It　was　therefore　a　great　advantage　for　France　that　she　was　so
  long　governed　by　a　monarch　almost　absolute；　supposed　to
  hold　his　power　by　divine　right；　and　surrounded　therefore　by　a
  considerable　prestige。　　Without　such　an　authority　he　could　have
  controlled　neither　the　feudal　nobility；　nor　the　clergy；　nor　the
  parliaments。　　If　Poland；　towards　the　end　of　the　sixteenth
  century；　had　also　possessed　an　absolute　and　respected　monarchy；
  she　would　not　have　descended　the　path　of　decadence　which　led　to
  her　disappearance　from　the　map　of　Europe。
  We　have　shewn　in　this　chapter　that　political　revolutions　may　be
  accompanied　by　important　social　transformations。　　We　shall　soon
  see　how　slight　are　these　transformations　compared　to　those
  produced　by　religious　revolutions。
  CHAPTER　II
  RELIGIOUS　REVOLUTIONS
  1。　　The　importance　of　the　study　of　Religious　Revolutions　in
  respect　of　the　comprehension　of　the　great　Political　Revolutions。
  A　portion　of　this　work　will　be　devoted　to　the　French　Revolution。
  It　was　full　of　acts　of　violence　which　naturally　had　their
  psychological　causes。
  These　exceptional　events　will　always　fill　us　with　astonishment；
  and　we　even　feel　them　to　be　inexplicable。　　They　become
  comprehensible；　however；　if　we　consider　that　the　French
  Revolution；　constituting　a　new　religion；　was　bound　to　obey　the
  laws　which　condition　the　propagation　of　all　beliefs。　　Its　fury
  and　its　hecatombs　will　then　become　intelligible。
  In　studying　the　history　of　a　great　religious　revolution；　that　of
  the　Reformation；　we　shall　see　that　a　number　of　psychological
  elements　which　figured　therein　were　equally　active　during　the
  French　Revolution。　　In　both　we　observe　the　insignificant　bearing
  of　the　rational　value　of　a　belief　upon　its　propagation；　the
  inefficacy　of　persecution；　the　impossibility　of　tolerance　between
  contrary　beliefs；　and　the　violence　and　the　desperate　struggles
  resulting　from　the　conflict　of　different　faiths。　　We　also　observe
  the　exploitation　of　a　belief　by　interests　quite　independent
  of　that　belief。　　Finally　we　see　that　it　is　impossible　to　modify
  the　convictions　of　men　without　also　modifying　their　existence。
  These　phenomena　verified；　we　shall　see　plainly　why　the　gospel　of
  the　Revolution　was　propagated　by　the　same　methods　as　all　the
  religious　gospels；　notably　that　of　Calvin。　　It　could　not　have
  been　propagated　otherwise。
  But　although　there　are　close　analogies　between　the　genesis　of　a
  religious　revolution；　such　as　the　Reformation；　and　that　of　a
  great　political　revolution　like　our　own；　their　remote
  consequences　are　very　different；　which　explains　the　difference　of
  duration　which　they　display。　　In　religious　revolutions　no
  experience　can　reveal　to　the　faithful　that　they　are　deceived；
  since　they　would　have　to　go　to　heaven　to　make　the　discovery。　　In
  political　revolutions　experience　quickly　demonstrates　the　error
  of　a　false　doctrine　and　forces　men　to　abandon　it。
  Thus　at　the　end　of　the　Directory　the　application　of　Jacobin
  beliefs　had　led　France　to　such　a　degree　of　ruin；　poverty；　and
  despair　that　the　wildest　Jacobins　themselves　had　to　renounce
  their　system。　　Nothing　survived　of　their　theories　except　a　few
  principles　which　cannot　be　verified　by　experience；　such　as　the
  universal　happiness　which　equality　should　bestow　upon　humanity。
  2。　　The　beginnings　of　the　Reformation　and　its　first　disciples。
  The　Reformation　was　finally　to　exercise　a　profound　influence　upon
  the　sentiments　and　moral　ideas　of　a　great　proportion　of　mankind。
  Modest　in　its　beginnings；　it　was　at　first　a　simple　struggle
  against　the　abuses　of　the　clergy；　and；　from　a　practical　point　of
  view；　a　return　to　the　prescriptions　of　the　Gospel。　　It　never
  constituted；　as　has　been　claimed；　an　aspiration　towards　freedom
  of　thought。　　Calvin　was　as　intolerant　as　Robespierre；　and　all　the
  theorists　of　the　age　considered　that　the　religion　of　subjects
  must　be　that　of　the　prince　who　governed　them。　　Indeed　in　every
  country　where　the　Reformation　was　established　the　sovereign
  replaced　the　Pope　of　Rome；　with　the　same　rights　and　the　same
  powers。
  In　France；　in　default　of　publicity　and　means　of　communication；
  the　new　faith　spread　slowly　enough　at　first。　　It　was　about　1520
  that　Luther　recruited　a　few　adepts；　and　only　towards　1535　was　the
  new　belief　sufficiently　widespread　for　men　to　consider　it
  necessary　to　burn　its　disciples。
  In　conformity　with　a　well…known　psychological　law；　these
  executions　merely　favoured　the　propagation　of　the　Reformation。
  Its　first　followers　included　priests　and　magistrates；　but　were
  principally　obscure　artisans。　　Their　conversion　was　effected
  almost　exclusively　by　mental　contagion　and　suggestion。
  As　soon　as　a　new　belief　extends　itself；　we　see　grouped　round　it
  many　persons　who　are　indifferent　to　the　belief；　but　who　find　in
  it　a　pretext　or　opportunity　for　gratifying　their　passions　or
  their　greed。　　This　phenomenon　was　observed　at　the　time　of　the
  Reformation　in　many　countries；　notably　in　Germany　and　in　England。
  Luther　having　taught　that　the　clergy　had　no　need　of　wealth；　the
  German　lords　found　many　merits　in　a　faith　which　enabled　them　to
  seize　upon　the　goods　of　the　Church。　　Henry　VIII。　enriched
  himself　by　a　similar　operation。　　Sovereigns　who　were　often
  molested　by　the　Pope　could　as　a　rule　only　look　favourably　upon　a
  doctrine　which　added　religious　powers　to　their　political　powers
  and　made　each　of　them　a　Pope。　　Far　from　diminishing　the
  absolutism　of　rulers；　the　Reformation　only　exaggerated　it。
  3。　　Rational　value　of　the　doctrines　of　the　Reformation。
  The　Reformation　overturned　all　Europe；　and　came　near　to　ruining
  France；　of　which　it　made　a　battle…field　for　a　period　of　fifty
  years。　　Never　did　a　cause　so　insignificant　from　the　rational
  point　of　view　produce　such　great　results。
  Here　is　one　of　the　innumerable　proofs　of　the　fact　that　beliefs
  are　propagated　independently　of　all　reason。　　The　theological
  doctrines　which　aroused　men's　passions　so　violently；　and　notably
  those　of　Calvin；　are　not　even　worthy　of　examination