methods　have　revolutionised　them；　by　demonstrating　that
  phenomena；　instead　of　being　conditioned　by　the　caprices　of　the
  gods；　are　ruled　by　invariable　laws。
  Such　revolutions　are　fittingly　spoken　of　as　evolution；　on　account
  of　their　slowness。　　But　there　are　others　which；　although　of　the
  same　order；　deserve　the　name　of　revolution　by　reason　of　their
  rapidity：　we　may　instance　the　theories　of　Darwin；
  overthrowing　the　whole　science　of　biology　in　a　few　years；　the
  discoveries　of　Pasteur；　which　revolutionised　medicine　during　the
  lifetime　of　their　author；　and　the　theory　of　the　dissociation　of
  matter；　proving　that　the　atom；　formerly　supposed　to　be　eternal；
  is　not　immune　from　the　laws　which　condemn　all　the　elements　of　the
  universe　to　decline　and　perish。
  These　scientific　revolutions　in　the　domain　of　ideas　are　purely
  intellectual。　　Our　sentiments　and　beliefs　do　not　affect　them。
  Men　submit　to　them　without　discussing　them。　　Their　results　being
  controllable　by　experience；　they　escape　all　criticism。
  3。　　Political　Revolutions。
  Beneath　and　very　remote　from　these　scientific　revolutions；　which
  generate　the　progress　of　civilisations；　are　the　religious　and
  political　revolutions；　which　have　no　kinship　with　them。　　While
  scientific　revolutions　derive　solely　from　rational　elements；
  political　and　religious　beliefs　are　sustained　almost　exclusively
  by　affective　and　mystic　factors。　　Reason　plays　only　a　feeble　part
  in　their　genesis。
  I　insisted　at　some　length　in　my　book　Opinions　and　Beliefs　on
  the　affective　and　mystic　origin　of　beliefs；　showing　that　a
  political　or　religious　belief　constitutes　an　act　of　faith
  elaborated　in　unconsciousness；　over　which；　in　spite　of　all
  appearances；　reason　has　no　hold。　　I　also　showed　that　belief　often
  reaches　such　a　degree　of　intensity　that　nothing　can　be　opposed　to
  it。　　The　man　hypnotised　by　his　faith　becomes　an　Apostle；　ready　to
  sacrifice　his　interests；　his　happiness；　and　even　his　life　for　the
  triumph　of　his　faith。　　The　absurdity　of　his　belief　matters
  little；　for　him　it　is　a　burning　reality。　　Certitudes　of　mystic
  origin　possess　the　marvellous　power　of　entire　domination　over
  thought；　and　can　only　be　affected　by　time。
  By　the　very　fact　that　it　is　regarded　as　an　absolute　truth　a
  belief　necessarily　becomes　intolerant。　　This　explains　the
  violence；　hatred；　and　persecution　which　were　the　habitual
  accompaniments　of　the　great　political　and　religious　revolutions；
  notably　of　the　Reformation　and　the　French　Revolution。
  Certain　periods　of　French　history　remain　incomprehensible　if　we
  forget　the　affective　and　mystic　origin　of　beliefs；　their
  necessary　intolerance；　the　impossibility　of　reconciling　them　when
  they　come　into　mutual　contact；　and；　finally；　the　power　conferred
  by　mystic　beliefs　upon　the　sentiments　which　place　themselves　at
  their　service。
  The　foregoing　conceptions　are　too　novel　as　yet　to　have　modified
  the　mentality　of　the　historians。　　They　will　continue　to　attempt
  to　explain；　by　means　of　rational　logic；　a　host　of　phenomena　which
  are　foreign　to　it。
  Events　such　as　the　Reformation；　which　overwhelmed　France　for　a
  period　of　fifty　years；　were　in　no　wise　determined　by　rational
  influences。　　Yet　rational　influences　are　always　invoked　in
  explanation；　even　in　the　most　recent　works。　　Thus；　in　the
  General　History　of　Messrs。　Lavisse　and　Rambaud；　we　read　the
  following　explanation　of　the　Reformation：
  ‘‘It　was　a　spontaneous　movement；　born　here　and　there　amidst　the
  people；　from　the　reading　of　the　Gospels　and　the　free　individual
  reflections　which　were　suggested　to　simple　persons　by　an
  extremely　pious　conscience　and　a　very　bold　reasoning　power。''
  Contrary　to　the　assertion　of　these　historians；　we　may　say　with
  certainty；　in　the　first　place；　that　such　movements　are　never
  spontaneous；　and　secondly；　that　reason　takes　no　part　in　their
  elaboration。
  The　force　of　the　political　and　religious　beliefs　which　have　moved
  the　world　resides　precisely　in　the　fact　that；　being　born　of
  affective　and　mystic　elements；　they　are　neither　created　nor
  directed　by　reason。
  Political　or　religious　beliefs　have　a　common　origin　and　obey　the
  same　laws。　　They　are　formed　not　with　the　aid　of　reason；　but　more
  often　contrary　to　all　reason。　　Buddhism；　Islamism；　the
  Reformation；　Jacobinism；　Socialism；　&c。；　seem　very　different
  forms　of　thought。　　Yet　they　have　identical　affective　and　mystic
  bases；　and　obey　a　logic　that　has　no　affinity　with　rational　logic。
  Political　revolutions　may　result　from　beliefs　established　in　the
  minds　of　men；　but　many　other　causes　produce　them。　　The　word
  discontent　sums　them　up。　　As　soon　as　discontent　is　generalised　a
  party　is　formed　which　often　becomes　strong　enough　to　struggle
  against　the　Government。
  Discontent　must　generally　have　been　accumulating　for　a　long　time
  in　order　to　produce　its　effects。　　For　this　reason　a　revolution
  does　not　always　represent　a　phenomenon　in　process　of　termination
  followed　by　another　which　is　commencing　but　rather　a　continuous
  phenomenon；　having　somewhat　accelerated　its　evolution。　　All　the
  modern　revolutions；　however；　have　been　abrupt　movements；
  entailing　the　instantaneous　overthrow　of　governments。　　Such；　for
  example；　were　the　Brazilian；　Portuguese；　Turkish；　and　Chinese
  revolutions。
  To　the　contrary　of　what　might　be　supposed；　the　very　conservative
  peoples　are　addicted　to　the　most　violent　revolutions。　　Being
  conservative；　they　are　not　able　to　evolve　slowly；　or　to　adapt
  themselves　to　variations　of　environment；　so　that　when　the
  discrepancy　becomes　too　extreme　they　are　bound　to　adapt
  themselves　suddenly。　　This　sudden　evolution　constitutes　a
  revolution。
  Peoples　able　to　adapt　themselves　progressively　do　not　always
  escape　revolution。　　It　was　only　by　means　of　a　revolution　that　the
  English；　in　1688；　were　able　to　terminate　the　struggle　which　had
  dragged　on　for　a　century　between　the　monarchy；　which　sought　to
  make　itself　absolute；　and　the　nation；　which　claimed　the　right　to
  govern　itself　through　the　medium　of　its　representatives。
  The　great　revolutions　have　usually　commenced　from　the　top；　not
  from　the　bottom；　but　once　the　people　is　unchained　it　is　to　the
  people　that　revolution　owes　its　might。
  It　is　obvious　that　revolutions　have　never　taken　place；　and　will
  never　take　place；　save　with　the　aid　of　an　important　fraction　of
  the　army。　　Royalty　did　not　disappear　in　France　on　the　day　when
  Louis　XVI。　was　guillotined；　but　at　the　precise　moment　when　his
  mutinous　troops　refused　to　defend　him。
  It　is　more　particularly　by　mental　contagion　that　armies　become
  disaffected；　being　indifferent　enough　at　heart　to　the　established
  order　of　things。　　As　soon　as　the　coalition　of　a　few　officers　had
  succeeded　in　overthrowing　the　Turkish　Government　the　Greek
  officers　thought　to　imitate　them　and　to　change　their　government；
  although　there　was　no　analogy　between　the　two　regimes。
  A　military　movement　may　overthrow　a　governmentand　in　the
  Spanish　republics　the　Government　is　hardly　ever　destroyed　by　any
  other　meansbut　if　the　revolution　is　to　be　productive　of　great
  results　it　must　always　be　based　upon　general　discontent　and
  general　hopes。
  Unless　it　is　universal　and　excessive；　discontent　alone　is　not
  sufficient　to　bring　about　a　revolution。　　It　is　easy　to　lead　a
  handful　of　men　to　pillage；　destroy；　and　massacre；　but　to　raise　a
  whole　people；　or　any　great　portion　of　that　people；　calls　for　the
  continuous　or　repeated　action　of　leaders。　　These　exaggerate　the
  discontent；　they　persuade　the　discontented　that　the　government　is
  the　sole　cause　of　all　the　trouble；　especially　of　the　prevailing
  dearth；　and　assure　men　that　the　new　system　proposed　by　them　will
  engender　an　age　of　felicity。　　These　ideas　germinate；　propagating
  themselves　by　suggestion　and　contagion；　and　the　moment　arrives
  when　the　revolution　is　ripe。
  In　this　fashion　the　Christian　Revolution　and　the　French
  Revolution　were　prepared。　　That　the　latter　was　effected　in　a　few
  years；　while　the　first　required　many；　was　due　to　the　fact　that
  the　French　Revolution　promptly　had　an　armed　force　at　its
  disposal；　while　Christianity　was　long　in　winning　material　power。
  In　the　beginning　its　only　adepts　were　the　lowly；　the　poor；　and
  the　slaves；　filled　with　enthusiasm　by　the　prospect　of　seeing
  their　miserable　life　transformed　into　an　eternity　of　delight。　　By
  a　phenomenon　of　contagion　from　below；　of　which　history　affords　us
  more　than　one　example；　the　doctrine　finally　invaded　the　upper
  strata　of　the　nation；　but　it　was　a　long　time　before　an
  emperor　considered　the　new　faith　sufficiently　widespread　to　be
  adopted　as　the　official　religion。
  4。　　The　Results　of　Political　Revolutions。
  When　a　political　party　is　triumphant　it　naturally　seeks　to
  organise　society　in　accordance　with　its　interests。　　The
  organisation　will　differ　accordingly　as　the　revolution　has　been
  effected　by　the　soldiers；　the　Radicals；　or　the　Conservatives；　&c。
  The　new　laws