evolution　of　the　resulting　malady。
  When　any　question　gives　rise　to　violently　contradictory　opinions
  we　may　be　sure　that　it　belongs　to　the　province　of　beliefs　and　not
  to　that　of　knowledge。
  We　have　shown　in　a　preceding　work　that　belief；　of　unconscious
  origin　and　independent　of　all　reason；　can　never　be　influenced　by
  reason。
  The　Revolution；　the　work　of　believers；　has　seldom　been　judged　by
  any　but　believers。　　Execrated　by　some　and　praised　by　others；　it
  has　remained　one　of　those　dogmas　which　are　accepted　or　rejected
  as　a　whole；　without　the　intervention　of　rational　logic。
  Although　in　its　beginnings　a　religious　or　political　revolution
  may　very　well　be　supported　by　rational　elements；　it　is　developed
  only　by　the　aid　of　mystic　and　affective　elements　which　are
  absolutely　foreign　to　reason。
  The　historians　who　have　judged　the　events　of　the　French
  Revolution　in　the　name　of　rational　logic　could　not　comprehend
  them；　since　this　form　of　logic　did　not　dictate　them。　　As　the
  actors　of　these　events　themselves　understood　them　but　ill；　we
  shall　not　be　far　from　the　truth　in　saying　that　our
  Revolution　was　a　phenomenon　equally　misunderstood　by　those
  who　caused　it　and　by　those　who　have　described　it。　　At　no　period
  of　history　did　men　so　little　grasp　the　present；　so　greatly　ignore
  the　past；　and　so　poorly　divine　the　future。
  。　。　。　The　power　of　the　Revolution　did　not　reside　in　the
  principleswhich　for　that　matter　were　anything　but　novelwhich
  it　sought　to　propagate；　nor　in　the　institutions　which　it　sought
  to　found。　　The　people　cares　very　little　for　institutions　and　even
  less　for　doctrines。　　That　the　Revolution　was　potent　indeed；　that
  it　made　France　accept　the　violence；　the　murders；　the　ruin　and　the
  horror　of　a　frightful　civil　war；　that　finally　it　defended　itself
  victoriously　against　a　Europe　in　arms；　was　due　to　the　fact　that
  it　had　founded　not　a　new　system　of　government　but　a　new　religion。
  Now　history　shows　us　how　irresistible　is　the　might　of　a　strong
  belief。　　Invincible　Rome　herself　had　to　bow　before　the　armies　of
  nomad　shepherds　illuminated　by　the　faith　of　Mahommed。　　For　the
  same　reason　the　kings　of　Europe　could　not　resist　the
  tatterdemalion　soldiers　of　the　Convention。　　Like　all　apostles；
  they　were　ready　to　immolate　themselves　in　the　sole　end　of
  propagating　their　beliefs；　which　according　to　their　dream　were　to
  renew　the　world。
  The　religion　thus　founded　had　the　force　of　other　religions；　if
  not　their　duration。　　Yet　it　did　not　perish　without　leaving
  indelible　traces；　and　its　influence　is　active　still。
  We　shall　not　consider　the　Revolution　as　a　clean　sweep　in
  history；　as　its　apostles　believed　it。　　We　know　that　to
  demonstrate　their　intention　of　creating　a　world　distinct　from　the
  old　they　initiated　a　new　era　and　professed　to　break　entirely　with
  all　vestiges　of　the　past。
  But　the　past　never　dies。　　It　is　even　more　truly　within　us　than
  without　us。　　Against　their　will　the　reformers　of　the　Revolution
  remained　saturated　with　the　past；　and　could　only　continue；　under
  other　names；　the　traditions　of　the　monarchy；　even　exaggerating
  the　autocracy　and　centralisation　of　the　old　system。　　Tocqueville
  had　no　difficulty　in　proving　that　the　Revolution　did　little　but
  overturn　that　which　was　about　to　fall。
  If　in　reality　the　Revolution　destroyed　but　little　it　favoured　the
  fruition　of　certain　ideas　which　continued　thenceforth　to　develop。
  The　fraternity　and　liberty　which　it　proclaimed　never　greatly
  seduced　the　peoples；　but　equality　became　their　gospel：　the　pivot
  of　socialism　and　of　the　entire　evolution　of　modern　democratic
  ideas。　　We　may　therefore　say　that　the　Revolution　did　not　end　with
  the　advent　of　the　Empire；　nor　with　the　successive　restorations
  which　followed　it。　　Secretly　or　in　the　light　of　day　it　has　slowly
  unrolled　itself　and　still　affects　men's　minds。
  The　study　of　the　French　Revolution　to　which　a　great　part　of　this
  book　is　devoted　will　perhaps　deprive　the　reader　of　more　than　one
  illusion；　by　proving　to　him　that　the　books　which　recount　the
  history　of　the　Revolution　contain　in　reality　a　mass　of　legends
  very　remote　from　reality。
  These　legends　will　doubtless　retain　more　life　than　history
  itself。　　Do　not　regret　this　too　greatly。　　It　may　interest　a　few
  philosophers　to　know　the　truth；　but　the　peoples　will　always
  prefer　dreams。　　Synthetising　their　ideal；　such　dreams　will　always
  constitute　powerful　motives　of　action。　　One　would　lose　courage
  were　it　not　sustained　by　false　ideas；　said　Fontenelle。　　Joan　of
  Arc；　the　Giants　of　the　Convention；　the　Imperial　epicall　these
  dazzling　images　of　the　past　will　always　remain　sources　of　hope　in
  the　gloomy　hours　that　follow　defeat。　　They　form　part　of　that
  patrimony　of　illusions　left　us　by　our　fathers；　whose　power　is
  often　greater　than　that　of　reality。　　The　dream；　the　ideal；　the
  legendin　a　word；　the　unrealit　is　that　which　shapes　history。
  PART　I
  THE　PSYCHOLOGICAL　ELEMENTS　OF　REVOLUTIONARY　MOVEMENTS
  BOOK　I
  GENERAL　CHARACTERISTICS　OF　REVOLUTIONS
  CHAPTER　I
  SCIENTIFIC　AND　POLITICAL　REVOLUTIONS
  1。　　Classification　of　Revolutions。
  We　generally　apply　the　term　revolution　to　sudden　political
  changes；　but　the　expression　may　be　employed　to　denote　all　sudden
  transformations；　or　transformations　apparently　sudden；　whether　of
  beliefs；　ideas；　or　doctrines。
  We　have　considered　elsewhere　the　part　played　by　the　rational；
  affective；　and　mystic　factors　in　the　genesis　of　the　opinions　and
  beliefs　which　determine　conduct。　　We　need　not　therefore　return　to
  the　subject　here。
  A　revolution　may　finally　become　a　belief；　but　it　often　commences
  under　the　action　of　perfectly　rational　motives：　the　suppression
  of　crying　abuses；　of　a　detested　despotic　government；　or　an
  unpopular　sovereign；　&c。
  Although　the　origin　of　a　revolution　may　be　perfectly　rational；　we
  must　not　forget　that　the　reasons　invoked　in　preparing　for　it　do
  not　influence　the　crowd　until　they　have　been　transformed
  into　sentiments。　　Rational　logic　can　point　to　the　abuses　to　be
  destroyed；　but　to　move　the　multitude　its　hopes　must　be　awakened。
  This　can　only　be　effected　by　the　action　of　the　affective　and
  mystic　elements　which　give　man　the　power　to　act。　　At　the　time　of
  the　French　Revolution；　for　example；　rational　logic；　in　the　hands
  of　the　philosophers；　demonstrated　the　inconveniences　of　the
  ancien　regime；　and　excited　the　desire　to　change　it。　　Mystic
  logic　inspired　belief　in　the　virtues　of　a　society　created　in　all
  its　members　according　to　certain　principles。　　Affective　logic
  unchained　the　passions　confined　by　the　bonds　of　ages　and　led　to
  the　worst　excesses。　　Collective　logic　ruled　the　clubs　and　the
  Assemblies　and　impelled　their　members　to　actions　which　neither
  rational　nor　affective　nor　mystic　logic　would　ever　have　caused
  them　to　commit。
  Whatever　its　origin；　a　revolution　is　not　productive　of　results
  until　it　has　sunk　into　the　soul　of　the　multitude。　　Then　events
  acquire　special　forms　resulting　from　the　peculiar　psychology　of
  crowds。　　Popular　movements　for　this　reason　have　characteristics
  so　pronounced　that　the　description　of　one　will　enable　us　to
  comprehend　the　others。
  The　multitude　is；　therefore；　the　agent　of　a　revolution；　but　not
  its　point　of　departure。　　The　crowd　represents　an　amorphous　being
  which　can　do　nothing；　and　will　nothing；　without　a　head　to　lead
  it。　　It　will　quickly　exceed　the　impulse　once　received；　but　it
  never　creates　it。
  The　sudden　political　revolutions　which　strike　the　historian　most
  forcibly　are　often　the　least　important。　　The　great　revolutions
  are　those　of　manners　and　thought。　　Changing　the　name　of　a
  government　does　not　transform　the　mentality　of　a　people。　　To
  overthrow　the　institutions　of　a　people　is　not　to　re…shape　its
  soul。
  The　true　revolutions；　those　which　transform　the　destinies　of　the
  peoples；　are　most　frequently　accomplished　so　slowly　that　the
  historians　can　hardly　point　to　their　beginnings。　　The　term
  evolution　is；　therefore；　far　more　appropriate　than　revolution。
  The　various　elements　we　have　enumerated　as　entering　into　the
  genesis　of　the　majority　of　revolutions　will　not　suffice　to
  classify　them。　　Considering　only　the　designed　object；　we　will
  divide　them　into　scientific　revolutions；　political　revolutions；
  and　religious　revolutions。
  2。　　Scientific　Revolutions。
  Scientific　revolutions　are　by　far　the　most　important。　　Although
  they　attract　but　little　attention；　they　are　often　fraught　with
  remote　consequences；　such　as　are　not　engendered　by　political
  revolutions。　　We　will　therefore　put　them　first；　although　we
  cannot　study　them　here。
  For　instance；　if　our　conceptions　of　the　universe　have　profoundly
  changed　since　the　time　of　the　Revolution；　it　is　because
  astronomical　discoveries　and　the　application　of　experimental
  methods　have　revolutionised　them；　by　demonstrating　that
  phenomena；　instead　of　being　conditioned　by　the　caprices