400　BC
  ON　AIRS；　WATERS；　AND　PLACES
  by　Hippocrates
  Translated　by　Francis　Adams
  WHOEVER　wishes　to　investigate　medicine　properly；　should　proceed
  thus：　in　the　first　place　to　consider　the　seasons　of　the　year；　and　what
  effects　each　of　them　produces　for　they　are　not　at　all　alike；　but
  differ　much　from　themselves　in　regard　to　their　changes。　Then　the
  winds；　the　hot　and　the　cold；　especially　such　as　are　common　to　all
  countries；　and　then　such　as　are　peculiar　to　each　locality。　We　must
  also　consider　the　qualities　of　the　waters；　for　as　they　differ　from　one
  another　in　taste　and　weight；　so　also　do　they　differ　much　in　their
  qualities。　In　the　same　manner；　when　one　comes　into　a　city　to　which
  he　is　a　stranger；　he　ought　to　consider　its　situation；　how　it　lies　as
  to　the　winds　and　the　rising　of　the　sun；　for　its　influence　is　not　the
  same　whether　it　lies　to　the　north　or　the　south；　to　the　rising　or　to
  the　setting　sun。　These　things　one　ought　to　consider　most
  attentively；　and　concerning　the　waters　which　the　inhabitants　use；
  whether　they　be　marshy　and　soft；　or　hard；　and　running　from　elevated
  and　rocky　situations；　and　then　if　saltish　and　unfit　for　cooking；　and
  the　ground；　whether　it　be　naked　and　deficient　in　water；　or　wooded
  and　well　watered；　and　whether　it　lies　in　a　hollow；　confined　situation；
  or　is　elevated　and　cold；　and　the　mode　in　which　the　inhabitants　live；
  and　what　are　their　pursuits；　whether　they　are　fond　of　drinking　and
  eating　to　excess；　and　given　to　indolence；　or　are　fond　of　exercise
  and　labor；　and　not　given　to　excess　in　eating　and　drinking。
  2。　From　these　things　he　must　proceed　to　investigate　everything　else。
  For　if　one　knows　all　these　things　well；　or　at　least　the　greater　part
  of　them；　he　cannot　miss　knowing；　when　he　comes　into　a　strange　city；
  either　the　diseases　peculiar　to　the　place；　or　the　particular　nature　of
  common　diseases；　so　that　he　will　not　be　in　doubt　as　to　the　treatment
  of　the　diseases；　or　commit　mistakes；　as　is　likely　to　be　the　case
  provided　one　had　not　previously　considered　these　matters。　And　in
  particular；　as　the　season　and　the　year　advances；　he　can　tell　what
  epidemic　diseases　will　attack　the　city；　either　in　summer　or　in　winter；
  and　what　each　individual　will　be　in　danger　of　experiencing　from　the
  change　of　regimen。　For　knowing　the　changes　of　the　seasons；　the　risings
  and　settings　of　the　stars；　how　each　of　them　takes　place；　he　will　be
  able　to　know　beforehand　what　sort　of　a　year　is　going　to　ensue。
  Having　made　these　investigations；　and　knowing　beforehand　the
  seasons；　such　a　one　must　be　acquainted　with　each　particular；　and
  must　succeed　in　the　preservation　of　health；　and　be　by　no　means
  unsuccessful　in　the　practice　of　his　art。　And　if　it　shall　be　thought
  that　these　things　belong　rather　to　meteorology；　it　will　be　admitted；
  on　second　thoughts；　that　astronomy　contributes　not　a　little；　but　a
  very　great　deal；　indeed；　to　medicine。　For　with　the　seasons　the
  digestive　organs　of　men　undergo　a　change。
  3。　But　how　of　the　aforementioned　things　should　be　investigated　and
  explained；　I　will　now　declare　in　a　clear　manner。　A　city　that　is
  exposed　to　hot　winds　（these　are　between　the　wintry　rising；　and　the
  wintry　setting　of　the　sun）；　and　to　which　these　are　peculiar；　but　which
  is　sheltered　from　the　north　winds；　in　such　a　city　the　waters　will　be
  plenteous　and　saltish；　and　as　they　run　from　an　elevated　source；　they
  are　necessarily　hot　in　summer；　and　cold　in　winter；　the　heads　of　the
  inhabitants　are　of　a　humid　and　pituitous　constitution；　and　their
  bellies　subject　to　frequent　disorders；　owing　to　the　phlegm　running
  down　from　the　head；　the　forms　of　their　bodies；　for　the　most　part；
  are　rather　flabby；　they　do　not　eat　nor　drink　much；　drinking　wine　in
  particular；　and　more　especially　if　carried　to　intoxication；　is
  oppressive　to　them；　and　the　following　diseases　are　peculiar　to　the
  district：　in　the　first　place；　the　women　are　sickly　and　subject　to
  excessive　menstruation；　then　many　are　unfruitful　from　disease；　and　not
  from　nature；　and　they　have　frequent　miscarriages；　infants　are
  subject　to　attacks　of　convulsions　and　asthma；　which　they　consider　to
  be　connected　with　infancy；　and　hold　to　be　a　sacred　disease　（epilepsy）。
  The　men　are　subject　to　attacks　of　dysentery；　diarrhea；　hepialus；
  chronic　fevers　in　winter；　of　epinyctis；　frequently；　and　of　hemorrhoids
  about　the　anus。　Pleurisies；　peripneumonies；　ardent　fevers；　and
  whatever　diseases　are　reckoned　acute；　do　not　often　occur；　for　such
  diseases　are　not　apt　to　prevail　where　the　bowels　are　loose。
  Ophthalmies　occur　of　a　humid　character；　but　not　of　a　serious　nature；
  and　of　short　duration；　unless　they　attack　epidemically　from　the　change
  of　the　seasons。　And　when　they　pass　their　fiftieth　year；　defluxions
  supervening　from　the　brain；　render　them　paralytic　when　exposed
  suddently　to　strokes　of　the　sun；　or　to　cold。　These　diseases　are
  endemic　to　them；　and；　moreover；　if　any　epidemic　disease　connected　with
  the　change　of　the　seasons；　prevail；　they　are　also　liable　to　it。
  4。　But　the　following　is　the　condition　of　cities　which　have　the
  opposite　exposure；　namely；　to　cold　winds；　between　the　summer
  settings　and　the　summer　risings　of　the　sun；　and　to　which　these　winds
  are　peculiar；　and　which　are　sheltered　from　the　south　and　the　hot
  breezes。　In　the　first　place　the　waters　are；　for　the　most　part；　hard
  cold。　The　men　must　necessarily　be　well　braced　and　slender；　and　they
  must　have　the　discharges　downwards　of　the　alimentary　canal　hard；　and
  of　difficult　evacuation；　while　those　upwards　are　more　fluid；　and
  rather　bilious　than　pituitous。　Their　heads　are　sound　and　hard；　and
  they　are　liable　to　burstings　（of　vessels？）　for　the　most　part。　The
  diseases　which　prevail　epidemically　with　them；　are　pleurisies；　and
  those　which　are　called　acute　diseases。　This　must　be　the　case　when
  the　bowels　are　bound；　and　from　any　causes；　many　become　affected　with
  suppurations　in　the　lungs；　the　cause　of　which　is　the　tension　of　the
  body；　and　hardness　of　the　bowels；　for　their　dryness　and　the　coldness
  of　the　water　dispose　them　to　ruptures　（of　vessels？）。　Such
  constitutions　must　be　given　to　excess　of　eating；　but　not　of
  drinking；　for　it　is　not　possible　to　be　gourmands　and　drunkards　at
  the　same　time。　Ophthalmies；　too；　at　length　supervene；　these　being　of　a
  hard　and　violent　nature；　and　soon　ending　in　rupture　of　the　eyes；
  persons　under　thirty　years　of　age　are　liable　to　severe　bleedings　at
  the　nose　in　summer；　attacks　of　epilepsy　are　rare　but　severe。　Such
  people　are　likely　to　be　rather　long…lived；　their　ulcers　are　not
  attended　with　serious　discharges；　nor　of　a　malignant　character；　in
  disposition　they　are　rather　ferocious　than　gentle。　The　diseases　I　have
  mentioned　are　peculiar　to　the　men；　and　besides　they　are　liable　to
  any　common　complaint　which　may　be　prevailing　from　the　changes　of　the
  seasons。　But　the　women；　in　the　first　place；　are　of　a　hard
  constitution；　from　the　waters　being　hard；　indigestible；　and　cold；
  and　their　menstrual　discharges　are　not　regular；　but　in　small　quantity；
  and　painful。　Then　they　have　difficult　parturition；　but　are　not　very
  subject　to　abortions。　And　when　they　do　bring　forth　children；　they
  are　unable　to　nurse　them；　for　the　hardness　and　indigestable　nature
  of　the　water　puts　away　their　milk。　Phthisis　frequently　supervenes
  after　childbirth；　for　the　efforts　of　it　frequently　bring　on　ruptures
  and　strains。　Children　while　still　little　are　subject　to　dropsies　in
  the　testicle；　which　disappear　as　they　grow　older；　in　such　a　town
  they　are　late　in　attaining　manhood。　It　is；　as　I　have　now　stated；
  with　regard　to　hot　and　cold　winds　and　cities　thus　exposed。
  5。　Cities　that　are　exposed　to　winds　between　the　summer　and　the
  winter　risings　of　the　sun；　and　those　the　opposite　to　them；　have　the
  following　characters：…　Those　which　lie　to　the　rising　of　the　sun　are
  all　likely　to　be　more　healthy　than　such　as　are　turned　to　the　North；　or
  those　exposed　to　the　hot　winds；　even　if　there　should　not　be　a
  furlong　between　them。　In　the　first　place；　both　the　heat　and　cold　are
  more　moderate。　Then　such　waters　as　flow　to　the　rising　sun；　must
  necessarily　be　clear；　fragrant；　soft；　and　delightful　to　drink；　in　such
  a　city。　For　the　sun　in　rising　and　shining　upon　them　purifies　them；
  by　dispelling　the　vapors　which　generally　prevail　in　the　morning。　The
  persons　of　the　inhabitants　are；　for　the　most　part；　well　colored　and
  blooming；　unless　some　disease　counteract。　The　inhabitants　have　clear
  voices；　and　in　temper　and　intellect　are　superior　to　those　which　are
  exposed　to　the　north；　and　all　the　productions　of　the　country　in　like
  manner　are　better。　A　city　so　situated　resembles　the　spring　as　to
  moderation　between　heat　and　cold；　and　the　diseases　are　few　in
  number；　and　of　a　feeble　kind；　and　bear　a　resemblance　to　the　diseases
  which　prevail　in　regions　exposed　to　hot　winds。　The　women　there　are
  very　prolific；　and　have　easy　deliveries。　Thus　it　is　with　regard　to
  them。
  6。　But　such　cities　as　lie　to　the　west；　and　which　are　sheltered
  from　winds　blowing　from　the　east；　and　which　the　hot　winds　and　the　cold
  winds　of　the　north　scarcely　touch；　must　necessarily　be　in　a　very
  unhealthy　situation：　in　the