sensuous　conception；　at　the　cost　of　losing　the　precision　of　thought。　To　put　an
  attractive　by　the　side　of　a　repulsive　force；　as　the　moderns　have　done；　certainly
  gives　completeness　to　the　contrast：　and　the　discovery　of　this　natural　force；　as　it　is
  called；　has　been　a　source　of　much　pride。　But　the　mutual　implication　of　the　two；
  which　makes　what　is　true　and　concrete　in　them；　would　have　to　be　wrested　from
  the　obscurity　and　confusion　in　which　they　were　left　even　in　Kant's　Metaphysical
  Rudiments　of　Natural　Science。　In　modern　times　the　importance　of　the　atomic
  theory　is　even　more　evident　in　political　than　in　physical　science。　According　to　it；
  the　will　of　individuals　as　such　is　the　creative　principle　of　the　State：　the　attracting
  force　is　the　special　wants　and　inclinations　of　individuals；　and　the　Universal；　or　the
  State　itself；　is　the　external　nexus　of　a　compact。
  §98n1
  The　Atomic　philosophy　forms　a　vital　stage　in　the　historical　evolution　of　the　Idea。　The　principle　of
  that　system　may　be　described　as　Being…for…itself　in　the　shape　of　the　Many。　At　present；　students　of
  nature　who　are　anxious　to　avoid　metaphysics　turn　a　favourable　ear　to　Atomism。　But　it　is　not
  possible　to　escape　metaphysics　and　cease　to　trace　nature　back　to　terms　of　thought；　by　throwing
  ourselves　into　the　arms　of　Atomism。　The　atom；　in　fact；　is　itself　a　thought；　and　hence　the　theory
  which　holds　matter　to　consist　of　atoms　is　a　metaphysical　theory。
  Newton　gave　physics　an　express　warning　to　beware　of　metaphysics；　it　is　true；　but　to　his　honour　be
  it　said；　he　did　not　by　any　means　obey　his　own　warning。　The　only　mere　physicists　are　the　animals：
  they　alone　do　not　think：　while　man　is　a　thinking　being　and　a　born　metaphysician。　The　real　question
  is　not　whether　we　shall　apply　metaphysics；　but　whether　our　metaphysics　are　of　the　right　kind：　in
  other　words；　whether　we　are　not；　instead　of　the　concrete　logical　Idea；　adopting　one…sided　forms
  of　thought；　rigidly　fixed　by　understanding；　and　making　these　the　basis　of　our　theoretical　as　well　as
  our　practical　work。　It　is　on　this　ground　that　one　objects　to　the　Atomic　philosophy。
  The　old　Atomists　viewed　the　world　as　a　many；　as　their　successors　often　do　to　this　day。　On　chance
  they　laid　the　task　of　collecting　the　atoms　which　float　about　in　the　void。　But；　after　all；　the　nexus
  binding　the　many　with　one　another　is　by　no　means　a　mere　accident：　as　we　have　already　remarked；
  the　nexus　founded　on　their　very　nature。
  To　Kant　we　owe　the　completed　theory　of　matter　as　the　unity　of　repulsion　and　attraction。　The
  theory　is　correct；　so　far　as　it　recognises　attraction　to　be　the　other　of　the　two　elements　involved　in
  the　notion　of　being…for…self：　and　to　be　an　element　no　less　essential　than　repulsion　to　constitute
  matter。　Still；　this　dynamic　construction　of　matter；　as　it　is　termed；　has　the　fault　of　taking　for　granted；
  instead　of　deducing；　attraction　and　repulsion。　Had　they　been　deduced；　we　should　then　have　seen
  the　How　and　Why　of　a　unity　which　is　merely　asserted。　Kant　。。。　＇insisted　that＇　matter　must　be
  regarded　as　consisting　solely　in　their　unity。
  German　physicists　for　some　time　accepted　this　pure　dynamic。　But　in　spite　of　this；　the　majority　of
  these　physicists　in　modern　times　have　found　it　more　convenient　to　return　to　the　Atomic　point　of
  view；　and　in　spite　of　the　warnings　of　K？stner；　one　of　their　number；　have　begun　to　regard　Matter
  as　consisting　of　infinitesimally　small　particles；　termed　'atoms　which　atoms　have　then　to　be　brought
  into　relation　with　one　another　by　the　play　of　forces　attaching　to　them…attractive；　repulsive；　or
  whatever　they　may　be。　This　too　is　metaphysics；　and　metaphysics　which；　for　its　utter　unintelligence；
  there　would　be　sufficient　reason　to　guard　against。
  Quantity　and　Quality
  §98n2
  The　transition　from　Quality　to　Quantity；　indicated　in　the　paragraph　before　us；　is　not　found　in　our
  ordinary　way　of　thinking；　which　deems　each　of　these　categories　to　exist　independently　beside　the
  other。　We　are　in　the　habit　of　saying　that　things　are　not　merely　qualitatively；　but　also　quantitatively
  defined；　but　whence　these　categories　originate；　and　how　they　are　related　to　each　other；　are
  questions　not　further　examined。　The　fact　is；　quantity　just　means　quality　superseded　and　absorbed：
  and　it　is　by　the　dialectic　of　quality　here　examined　that　this　supersession　is　effected。
  ？
  First　of　all；　we　had　Being：　as　the　truth　of　Being；　came　Becoming：　which　formed　the　passage　into
  Being　Determinate：　and　the　truth　of　that　we　found　to　be　Alteration。　And　in　its　result　Alteration
  showed　itself　to　be　Being…for…self；　finally；　in　the　two　sides　of　the　process；　Repulsion　and
  Attraction；　was　clearly　seen　to　annul　itself；　and　thereby　to　annul　quality　in　the　totality　of　its　stages。
  Still　this　superseded　and　absorbed　quality　is　neither　an　abstract　nothing；　nor　an　equally　abstract
  and　featureless　being：　it　is　only　being　as　indifferent　to　determinateness　or　character。　This　aspect　of
  being　is　also　what　appears　as　quantity　in　our　ordinary　conceptions。　We　observe　things；　first　of　all；
  with　an　eye　to　their　quality　…　which　we　take　to　be　the　character　identical　with　the　being　of　the　thing。
  If　we　proceed　to　consider　their　quantity；　we　get　the　conception　of　an　indifferent　and　external
  character　or　mode；　of　such　a　kind　that　a　thing　remains　what　it　is；　though　its　quantity　is　altered；　and
  the　thing　becomes　greater　or　less。
  B。　QUANTITY
  C。　MEASURE
  §107
  Measure　is　the　qualitative　quantum；　in　the　first　place　as　immediate　…　a　quantum；
  to　which　a　determinate　being　or　a　quality　is　attached。
  §107n
  Measure；　where　quality　and　quantity　are　in　one；　is　thus　the　completion　of　Being。　Being；　as　we　first
  apprehend　it；　is　something　utterly　abstract　and　characterless；　but　it　is　the　very　essence　of　Being　to
  characterise　itself；　and　its　complete　characterisation　is　reached　in　Measure。　Measure；　like　the　other
  stages　of　Being；　may　serve　as　a　definition　of　the　Absolute；　God；　it　has　been　said；　is　the　Measure　of
  all　things。　It　is　this　idea　which　forms　the　ground…note　of　many　of　the　ancient　Hebrew　hymns；　in
  which　the　glorification　of　God　tends　in　the　main　to　show　that　he　has　appointed　to　everything　its
  bound：　to　the　sea　and　the　solid　land；　to　the　rivers　and　mountains；　and　also　to　the　various　kinds　of
  plants　and　animals。　To　the　religious　sense　of　the　Greeks　the　divinity　of　measure；　especially　in
  respect　of　social　ethics；　was　represented　by　Nemesis。　That　conception　implies　a　general　theory
  that　all　human　beings；　riches；　honour；　and　power；　as　well　as　joy　and　pain；　have　their　definite
  measure；　the　transgression　of　which　brings　ruin　and　destruction。　In　the　world　of　objects　too；　we
  have　measure。　We　see；　in　the　first　place；　existences　in　Nature；　of　which　measure　forms　the
  essential　structure。　This　is　the　case；　for　example；　with　the　solar　system；　which　may　be　described　as
  the　realm　of　free　measures。　As　we　next　proceed　to　the　study　of　inorganic　nature；　measure　retires；
  as　it　were；　into　the　background；　at　least　we　often　find　the　quantitative　and　qualitative
  characteristics　showing　indifference　to　each　other。　Thus　the　quality　of　a　rock　or　a　river　is　not　tied
  to　a　definite　magnitude。
  But　even　these　objects　when　closely　inspected　are　found　to　be　not　quite　measureless：　the　water　of
  a　river；　and　the　single　constituents　of　a　rock；　when　chemically　analysed；　are　seen　to　be　qualities
  conditioned　by　the　quantitative　ratios　between　the　matters　they　contain。　In　organic　nature；
  however；　measure　again　rises　into　immediate　perception。　The　various　kinds　of　plants　and　animals；
  in　the　whole　as　well　as　in　their　parts；　have　a　certain　measure：　though　it　is　worth　noticing　that　the
  more　imperfect　forms；　those　which　are　least　removed　from　inorganic　nature；　are　partly
  distinguished　from　the　higher　forms　by　the　greater　indefiniteness　of　their　measure。　Thus　among
  fossils　we　find　some　ammonites　discernible　only　by　the　microscope　and　others　as　large　as　a
  cart…wheel。　The　same　vagueness　of　measure　appears　in　several　plants；　which　stand　on　a　low　level
  of　organic　development　…　for　instance　ferns。
  §108
  In　so　far　as　in　Measure　quality　and　quantity　are　only　in　immediate　unity；　to　that
  extent　their　difference　presents　itself　in　a　manner　equally　immediate。　Two　cases
  are　then　possible。　Either　the　specific　quantum　or　measure　is　a　bare　quantum；　and
  the　definite　being　（there…and…then）　is　capable　of　an　increase　or　a　diminution；
  without　Measure　（which　to　that　extent　is　a　Rule）　being　thereby　set　completely
  aside。　Or　the　alteration　of　the　quantum　is　also　an　alteration　of　the　quality。
  §　108n
  The　identity　between　quantity　and　quality；　which　is　found　in　Measure；　is　at　first　only　implicit；　and
  not　yet　explicitly　realised。　In　other　words；　these　two　categories；　which　unite　in　Measure；　each
  claim　an　independent　authority。　On　the　one　hand；　the　quantitative　features　of　existence　may　be
  altered；　without　affecting　its　quality。　On　the　other　hand；　this　increase　and　d