ideals　are　nothing　but　chimeras；　and　philosophy　a　mere　system　of　such
  phantasms。　It　is　also　opposed　by　the　very　different　fancy　that　Ideas　and　ideals　are
  something　far　too　excellent　to　have　actuality；　or　something　too　impotent　to
  procure　it　for　themselves。　This　divorce　between　idea　and　reality　is　especially　dear
  to　the　analytic　understanding　which　looks　upon　its　own　abstractions；　dreams
  though　they　are；　as　something　true　and　real；　and　prides　itself　on　the　imperative
  'ought'；　which　it　takes　especial　pleasure　in　prescribing　even　on　the　field　of　politics。
  As　if　the　world　had　waited　on　it　to　learn　how　it　ought　to　be；　and　was　not！　For；　if　it
  were　as　it　ought　to　be；　what　would　come　of　the　precocious　wisdom　of　that
  'ought'？　When　understanding　turns　this　'ought'　against　trivial　external　and
  transitory　objects；　against　social　regulations　or　conditions；　which　very　likely
  possess　a　great　relative　importance　for　a　certain　time　and　special　circles；　it　may
  often　be　right。　In　such　a　case　the　intelligent　observer　may　meet　much　that　fails　to
  satisfy　the　general　requirements　of　right；　for　who　is　not　acute　enough　to　see　a
  great　deal　in　his　own　surroundings　which　is　really　far　from　being　as　it　ought　to　be？
  But　such　acuteness　is　mistaken　in　the　conceit　that；　when　it　examines　these　objects
  and　pronounces　what　they　ought　to　be；　it　is　dealing　with　questions　of　philosophic
  science。　The　object　of　philosophy　is　the　Idea：　and　the　Idea　is　not　so　impotent　as
  merely　to　have　a　right　or　an　obligation　to　exist　without　actually　existing。　The
  object　of　philosophy　is　an　actuality　of　which　those　objects；　social　regulations　and
  conditions；　are　only　the　superficial　outside。
  §7
  Thus　reflection　…　thinking　things　over　…　in　a　general　way　involves　the　principle
  （which　also　means　the　beginning）　of　philosophy。　And　when　the　reflective　spirit
  arose　again　in　its　independence　in　modern　times；　after　the　epoch　of　the　Lutheran
  Reformation；　it　did　not；　as　in　its　beginnings　among　the　Greeks；　stand　merely
  aloof；　in　a　world　of　its　own；　but　at　once　turned　its　energies　also　upon　the
  apparently　illimitable　material　of　the　phenomenal　world。　In　this　way　the　name
  philosophy　came　to　be　applied　to　all　those　branches　of　knowledge；　which　are
  engaged　in　ascertaining　the　standard　and　Universal　in　the　ocean　of　empirical
  individualities；　as　well　as　in　ascertaining　the　Necessary　element；　or　Laws；　to　be
  found　in　the　apparent　disorder　of　the　endless　masses　of　the　fortuitous。　It　thus
  appears　that　modern　philosophy　derives　its　materials　from　our　own　personal
  observations　and　perceptions　of　the　external　and　internal　world；　from　nature　as
  well　as　from　the　mind　and　heart　of　man；　when　both　stand　in　the　immediate
  presence　of　the　observer。
  This　principle　of　Experience　carries　with　it　the　unspeakably　important　condition
  that；　in　order　to　accept　and　believe　any　fact；　we　must　be　in　contact　with　it；　or；　in
  more　exact　terms；　that　we　must　find　the　fact　united　and　combined　with　the
  certainty　of　our　own　selves。　We　must　be　in　touch　with　our　subject…matter；
  whether　it　be　by　means　of　our　external　senses；　or；　else；　by　our　profounder　mind
  and　our　intimate　self…consciousness。　This　principle　is　the　same　as　that　which　has
  in　the　present　day　been　termed　faith；　immediate　knowledge；　the　revelation　in　the
  outward　world；　and；　above　all；　in　our　own　heart。
  Those　sciences；　which　thus　got　the　name　of　philosophy；　we　call　empirical
  sciences；　for　the　reason　that　they　take　their　departure　from　experience。　Still　the
  essential　results　which　they　aim　at　and　provide　are　laws；　general　propositions；　a
  theory　…　the　thoughts　of　what　is　found　existing。　On　this　ground　the　Newtonian
  physics　was　called　Natural　Philosophy。　Hugo　Grotius；　again；　by　putting　together
  and　comparing　the　behaviour　of　states　towards　each　other　as　recorded　in　history；
  succeeded；　with　the　help　of　the　ordinary　methods　of　general　reasoning；　in　laying
  down　certain　general　principles；　and　establishing　a　theory　which　may　be　termed
  the　Philosophy　of　International　Law。　In　England　this　is　still　the　usual　signification
  of　the　term　philosophy。　Newton　continues　to　be　celebrated　as　the　greatest　of
  philosophers：　and　the　name　goes　down　as　far　as　the　price…lists　of
  instrument…makers。　All　instruments；　such　as　the　thermometer　and　barometer；
  which　do　not　come　under　the　special　head　of　magnetic　or　electric　apparatus；　are
  styled　philosophical　instruments。　Surely　thought；　and　not　a　mere　combination　of
  wood；　iron；　etc。；　ought　to　be　called　the　instrument　of　philosophy！　The　recent
  science　of　Political　Economy　in　particular；　which　in　Germany　is　known　as
  Rational　Economy　of　the　State；　or　intelligent　national　economy；　has　in　England
  especially　appropriated　the　name　of　philosophy。
  §8
  In　its　own　field　this　empirical　knowledge　may　at　first　give　satisfaction；　but　in　two
  ways　it　is　seen　to　come　short。　In　the　first　place　there　is　another　circle　of　objects
  which　it　does　not　embrace。　These　are　Freedom；　Spirit；　and　God。　They　belong　to
  a　different　sphere；　not　because　it　can　be　said　that　they　have　nothing　to　do　with
  experience；　for　though　they　are　certainly　not　experiences　of　the　senses；　it　is　quite
  an　identical　proposition　to　say　that　whatever　is　in　consciousness　is　experienced。
  The　real　ground　for　assigning　them　to　another　field　of　cognition　is　that　in　their
  scope　and　content　these　objects　evidently　show　themselves　as　infinite。
  There　is　an　old　phrase　often　wrongly　attributed　to　Aristotle；　and　supposed　to
  express　the　general　tenor　of　his　philosophy。　Nihil　est　in　intellectu　quod　non　fuerit
  in　sensu：　there　is　nothing　in　thought　which　has　not　been　in　sense　and　experience。
  If　speculative　philosophy　refused　to　admit　this　maxim；　it　can　only　have　done　so
  from　a　misunderstanding。　It　will；　however；　on　the　converse　side　no　less　assert：
  Nihil　est　in　sensu　quod！　non　fuerit　in　intellectu。　And　this　may　be　taken　in　two
  senses。　In　the　general　sense　it　means　that　nous　or　spirit　（the　more　profound　idea
  of　nous　in　modern　thought）　is　the　cause　of　the　world。　In　its　special　meaning　（see　§
  2）　it　asserts　that　the　sentiment　of　right；　morals；　and　religion　is　a　sentiment　（and　in
  that　way　an　experience）　of　such　scope　and　such　character　that　it　can　spring　from
  and　rest　upon　thought　alone。
  §9
  But　in　the　second　place　in　point　of　form　the　subjective　reason　desires　a　further
  satisfaction　than　empirical　knowledge　gives；　and　this　form　is；　in　the　widest　sense
  of　the　term；　Necessity　（§　1）。　The　method　of　empirical　science　exhibits　two
  defects。
  The　first　is　that　the　Universal　or　general　principle　contained　in　it；　the　genus；　or
  kind；　etc。；　is；　on　its　own　account；　indeterminate　and　vague；　and　therefore　not　on
  its　own　account　connected　with　the　Particulars　or　the　details。　Either　is　external
  and　accidental　to　the　other；　and　it　is　the　same　with　the　particular　facts　which　are
  brought　into　union：　each　is　external　and　accidental　to　the　others。
  The　second　defect　is　that　the　beginnings　are　in　every　case　data　and　postulates；
  neither　accounted　for　nor　deduced。　In　both　these　points　the　form　of　necessity　fails
  to　get　its　due。　Hence　reflection；　whenever　it　sets　itself　to　remedy　these　defects；
  becomes　speculative　thinking；　the　thinking　proper　to　philosophy。　As　a　species　of
  reflection；　therefore；　which；　though　it　has　a　certain　community　of　nature　with　the
  reflection　already　mentioned；　is　nevertheless　different　from　it；　philosophic　thought
  thus　possesses；　in　addition　to　the　common　forms；　some　forms　of　its　own；　of
  which　the　Notion　may　be　taken　as　the　type。
  The　relation　of　speculative　science　to　the　other　sciences　may　be　stated　in　the
  following　terms。　It　does　not　in　the　least　neglect　the　empirical　facts　contained　in　the
  several　sciences；　but　recognises　and　adopts　them：　it　appreciates　and　applies
  towards　its　own　structure　the　universal　element　in　these　sciences；　their　laws　and
  classifications：　but　besides　all　this；　into　the　categories　of　science　it　introduces；　and
  gives　currency　to；　other　categories。　The　difference；　looked　at　in　this　way；　is　only
  a　change　of　categories。　Speculative　Logic　contains　all　previous　Logic　and
  Metaphysics：　it　preserves　the　same　forms　of　thought；　the　same　laws　and　objects　…
  while　at　the　same　time　remodelling　and　expanding　them　with　wider　categories。
  From　notion　in　the　speculative　sense　we　should　distinguish　what　is　ordinarily
  called　a　notion。　The　phrase；　that　no　notion　can　ever　comprehend　the　Infinite；　a
  phrase　which　has　been　repeated　over　and　over　again　till　it　has　grown　axiomatic；　is
  based　upon　this　narrow　estimate　of　what　is　meant　by　notions。
  §10
  This　thought；　which　is　proposed　as　the　instrument　of　philosophic　knowledge；
  itself　calls　for　further　explanation。　We　must　understand　in　what　way　it　possesses
  necessity　or　cogency：　and　when　it　claims　to　be　equal　to　the　task　of　apprehending
  the　absolute　objects　（God；　Spirit；　Freedom）；　that　claim　must　be　substantiated。
  Such　an　explanation；　however；　is　itself　a　lesson　in　philosophy；　and　properly　falls
  within　the　scope　of　the　science　itself。　A　preliminary　attempt　to　make　matters　plain
  would　only　be　unphilosophical；　a