iced　and　his　body　bound　within　the　pine；　but　now　it　was　deemed　sufficient　for　the　maidens　to　sing　their　wild　songs　of　lamentation；　and　for　the　priests　and　male　enthusiasts　to　cut　and　gash　themselves　with　knives；　or　to　sacrifice　（as　they　did）　to　the　Earth…mother　the　precious　blood　offering　of　their　virile　organssymbols　of　fertility　in　return　for　the　promised　and　expected　renewal　of　Nature　and　the　crops　in　the　coming　Spring。　For　the　ceremony；　as　we　have　already　seen；　did　not　end　with　death　and　lamentation；　but　led　on；　perfectly　naturally；　after　a　day　or　two　to　a　festival　of　resurrection；　when　it　was　discovered　just　as　in　the　case　of　Osiristhat　the　pine…tree　coffin　was　empty；　and　the　immortal　life　had　flown。　How　strange　the　similarity　and　parallelism　of　all　these　things　to　the　story　of　Jesus　in　the　Gospelsthe　sacrifice　of　a　life　made　in　order　to　bring　salvation　to　men　and　expiation　of　sins；　the　crowning　of　the　victim；　and　arraying　in　royal　attire；　the　scourging　and　the　mockery；　the　binding　or　nailing　to　a　tree；　the　tears　of　Mary；　and　the　resurrection　and　the　empty　coffin！or　how　not　at　all　strange　when　we　consider　in　what　numerous　forms　and　among　how　many　peoples；　this　same　parable　and　ritual　had　as　a　matter　of　fact　been　celebrated；　and　how　it　had　ultimately　come　down　to　bring　its　message　of　redemption　into　a　somewhat　obscure　Syrian　city；　in　the　special　shape　with　which　we　are　familiar。
  ＇1＇　See　Julius　Firmicus；　who　says　（De　Errore；　c。　28）：　〃in　sacris　Phrygiis；　quae　Matris　deum　dicunt；　per　annos　singulos　arbor　pinea　caeditur；　et　in　media　arbore　simulacrum　uvenis　subligatur。　In　Isiacis　sacris　de　pinea　arbore　caeditur　truncus；　hujus　trunci　media　pars　subtiliter　excavatur；　illis　de　segminibus　factum　idolum　Osiridis　sepelitur。　In　Prosperpinae　sacris　caesa　arbor　in　effigiem　virginis　formaraque　componitur；　et　cum　intra　civitatem　fuerit　illata；　quadraginta　noctibus　pIangitur；　quadragesima　vero　nocte　comburitur。〃
  Though　the　parable　or　legend　in　its　special　Christian　form　bears　with　it　the　consciousness　of　the　presence　of　beings　whom　we　may　call　gods；　it　is　important　to　remember　that　in　many　or　most　of　its　earlier　forms；　though　it　dealt　in　'spirits'the　spirit　of　the　corn；　or　the　spirit　of　the　Spring；　or　the　spirits　of　the　rain　and　the　thunder；　or　the　spirits　of　totem…animalsit　had　not　yet　quite　risen　to　the　idea　of　gods。　It　had　not　risen　to　the　conception　of　eternal　deities　sitting　apart　and　governing　the　world　in　solemn　conclaveas　from　the　slopes　of　Olympus　or　the　recesses　of　the　Christian　Heaven。　It　belonged；　in　fact；　in　its　inception；　to　the　age　of　Magic。　The　creed　of　Sin　and　Sacrifice；　or　of　Guilt　and　Expiationwhatever　we　like　to　call　itwas　evolved　perfectly　naturally　out　of　the　human　mind　when　brought　face　to　face　with　Life　and　Nature）　at　some　early　stage　of　its　self…consciousness。　It　was　essentially　the　result　of　man's　deep；　original　and　instinctive　sense　of　solidarity　with　Nature；　now　denied　and　belied　and　to　some　degree　broken　up　by　the　growth　and　conscious　insistence　of　the　self…regarding　impulses。　It　was　the　consciousness　of　disharmony　and　disunity；　causing　men　to　feel　all　the　more　poignantly　the　desire　and　the　need　of　reconciliation。　It　was　a　realization　of　union　made　clear　by　its　very　loss。　It　assumed　of　course；　in　a　subconscious　way　as　I　have　already　indicated；　that　the　external　world　was　the　HABITAT　of　a　mind　or　minds　similar　to　man's　own；　but　THAT　being　granted；　it　is　evident　that　the　particular　theories　current　in　this　or　that　place　about　the　nature　of　the　worldthe　theories；　as　we　should　say；　of　science　or　theologydid　not　alter　the　general　outlines　of　the　creed；　they　only　colored　its　details　and　gave　its　ritual　different　dramatic　settings。　The　mental　attitudes；　for　instance；　of　Abraham　sacrificing　the　ram；　or　of　the　Siberian　angakout　slaughtering　a　totem…bear；　or　of　a　modern　and　pious　Christian　contemplating　the　Saviour　on　the　Cross　are　really　almost　exactly　the　same。　I　mention　this　because　in　tracing　the　origins　or　the　evolution　of　religions　it　is　important　to　distinguish　clearly　what　is　essential　and　universal　from　that　which　is　merely　local　and　temporary。　Some　people；　no　doubt；　would　be　shocked　at　the　comparisons　just　made；　but　surely　it　is　much　more　inspiriting　and　encouraging　to　think　that　whatever　progress　HAS　been　made　in　the　religious　outlook　of　the　world　has　come　about　through　the　gradual　mental　growth　and　consent　of　the　peoples；　rather　than　through　some　unique　and　miraculous　event　of　a　rather　arbitrary　and　unexplained　characterwhich　indeed　might　never　be　repeated；　and　concerning　which　it　would　perhaps　be　impious　to　suggest　that　it　SHOULD　be　repeated。
  The　consciousness　then　of　Sin　（or　of　alienation　from　the　life　of　the　whole）；　and　of　restoration　or　redemption　through　Sacrifice；　seems　to　have　disclosed　itself　in　the　human　race　in　very　far…back　times；　and　to　have　symbolized　itself　in　some　most　ancient　rituals；　and　if　we　are　shocked　sometimes　at　the　barbarities　which　accompanied　those　rituals；　yet　we　must　allow　that　these　barbarities　show　how　intensely　the　early　people　felt　the　solemnity　and　importance　of　the　whole　matter；　and　we　must　allow　too　that　the　barbarities　did　sear　and　burn　themselves　into　rude　and　ignorant　minds　with　the　sense　of　the　NEED　of　Sacrifice；　and　with　a　result　perhaps　which　could　not　have　been　compassed　in　any　other　way。
  For　after　all　we　see　now　that　sacrifice　is　of　the　very　essence　of　social　life。　〃It　is　expedient　that　ONE　man　should　die　for　the　people〃；　and　not　only　that　one　man　should　actually　die；　but　（what　is　far　more　important）　that　each　man　should　be　ready　and　WILLING　to　die　in　that　cause；　when　the　occasion　and　the　need　arises。　Taken　in　its　larger　meanings　and　implications　Sacrifice；　as　conceived　in　the　ancient　world；　was　a　perfectly　reasonable　thing。　It　SHOULD　pervade　modern　life　more　than　it　does。　All　we　have　or　enjoy　flows　from；　or　is　implicated　with；　pain　and　suffering　in　others；　andif　there　is　any　justice　in　Nature　or　Humanityit　demands　an　equivalent　readiness　to　suffer　on　our　part。　If　Christianity　has　any　real　essence；　that　essence　is　perhaps　expressed　in　some　such　ritual　or　practice　of　Sacrifice；　and　we　see　that　the　dim　beginnings　of　this　idea　date　from　the　far…back　customs　of　savages　coming　down　from　a　time　anterior　to　all　recorded　history。
  VIII。　PAGAN　INITIATIONS　AND　THE　SECOND　BIRTH
  We　have　suggested　in　the　last　chapter　how　the　conceptions　of　Sin　and　Sacrifice　coming　down　to　us　from　an　extremely　remote　past；　and　embodied　among　the　various　peoples　of　the　world　sometimes　in　crude　and　bloodthirsty　rites；　sometimes　in　symbols　and　rituals　of　a　gentler　and　more　gracious　character；　descended　at　last　into　Christianity　and　became　a　part　of　its　creed　and　of　the　creed　of　the　modern　world。　On　the　whole　perhaps　we　may　trace　a　slow　amelioration　in　this　process　and　may　flatter　ourselves　that　the　Christian　centuries　exhibit　a　more　philosophical　understanding　of　what　Sin　is；　and　a　more　humane　conception　of　what　Sacrifice　SHOULD　be；　than　the　centuries　preceding。　But　I　fear　tht　any　very　decided　statement　or　sweeping　generalization　to　that　effect　would　beto　say　the　leastrash。　Perhaps　there　IS　a　very　slow　amelioration；　but　the　briefest　glance　at　the　history　of　the　Christian　churchesthe　horrible　rancours　and　revenges　of　the　clergy　and　the　sects　against　each　other　in　the　fourth　and　fifth　centuries　A。D。；　the　heresy…hunting　crusades　at　Beziers　and　other　places　and　the　massacres　of　the　Albigenses　in　the　twelfth　and　thirteenth　centuries；　the　witch…findings　and　burnings　of　the　sixteenth　and　seventeenth；　the　hideous　science…urged　and　bishop…blessed　warfare　of　the　twentieth　horrors　fully　as　great　as　any　we　can　charge　to　the　account　of　the　Aztecs　or　the　Babyloniansmust　give　us　pause。　Nor　must　we　forget　that　if　there　is　by　chance　a　substantial　amelioration　in　our　modern　outlook　with　regard　to　these　matters　the　same　had　begun　already　before　the　advent　of　Christianity　and　can　by　no　means　be　ascribed　to　any　miraculous　influence　of　that　religion。　Abraham　was　prompted　to　slay　a　ram　as　a　substitute　for　his　son；　long　before　the　Christians　were　thought　of；　the　rather　savage　Artemis　of　the　old　Greek　rites　was　（according　to　Pausanias）＇1＇　honored　by　the　yearly　sacrifice　of　a　perfect　boy　and　girl；　but　later　it　was　deemed　sufficient　to　draw　a　knife　across　their　throats　as　a　symbol；　with　the　result　of　spilling　only　a　few　drops　of　their　blood；　or　to　flog　the　boys　（with　the　same　result）　upon　her　altar。　Among　the　Khonds　in　old　days　many　victims　（meriahs）　were　sacrificed　to　the　gods；　〃but　in　time　the　man　was　replaced　by　a　horse；　the　horse　by　a　bull；　the　bull　by　a　ram；　the　ram　by　a　kid；　the　kid　by　fowls；　and　the　fowls　by　many　flowers。〃＇2＇　At　one　time；　according　to　the　Yajur…Veda；　there　was　a　festival　at　which　one　hundred　and　twenty…five　victims；　men　and　women；　boys　and　girls；　were　sacrificed；　〃but　reform　supervened；　and　now　the　victims　were　bound　as　before　to　the　stake；　but　afterwards　amid　litanies　to　the　immolated　（god）　Narayana；　the　sacrificing　priest　brandished　a　knife　and　severed　the　bonds　of　the　captives。〃＇3＇　At　the　Athenian　festival　of　the　Thargelia；　to　which　I　referred　in　the　last　chapter；　it　appears　that　the　victims；　in　later　times；　instead　of　being　slain；　were　tossed　from　a　height　into　the　sea；　and　after　being　r