ult　one　for　us　moderns　to　understand。　A　careful　study　has　been　made　of　it　by　Salamon　Reinach　in　his　Cultes；　Mythes　et　Religions；＇1＇　where　he　formulates　his　conclusions　in　twelve　statements　or　definitions；　but　even　sothough　his　suggestions　are　helpfulhe　throws　very　little　light　on　the　real　origin　of　the　system。＇2＇
  ＇1＇　See　English　translation　of　certain　chapters　（published　by　David　Nutt　in　1912）　entitled　Cults；　Myths　and　Religions；　pp。　1…25。　The　French　original　is　in　three　large　volumes。
  ＇2＇　The　same　may　be　said　of　the　formulated　statement　of　the　subject　in　Morris　Jastrow's　Handbooks　of　the　History　of　Religion；　vol。　iv。
  There　are　three　main　difficulties。　The　first　is　to　understand　why　primitive　Man　should　name　his　Tribe　after　an　animal　or　object　of　nature　at　all；　the　second；　to　understand　on　what　principle　he　selected　the　particular　name　（a　lion；　a　crocodile；　a　lady　bird；　a　certain　tree）；　the　third；　why　he　should　make　of　the　said　totem　a　divinity；　and　pay　honor　and　worship　to　it。　It　may　be　worth　while　to　pause　for　a　moment　over　these。
  （1）　The　fact　that　the　Tribe　was　one　of　the　early　things　for　which　Man　found　it　necessary　to　have　a　name　is　interesting；　because　it　shows　how　early　the　solidarity　and　psychological　actuality　of　the　tribe　was　recognized；　and　as　to　the　selection　of　a　name　from　some　animal　or　concrete　object　of　Nature；　that　was　inevitable；　for　the　simple　reason　that　there　was　nothing　else　for　the　savage　to　choose　from。　Plainly　to　call　his　tribe　〃The　Wayfarers〃　or　〃The　Pioneers〃　or　the　〃Pacifists〃　or　the　〃Invincibles；〃　or　by　any　of　the　thousand　and　one　names　which　modern　associations　adopt；　would　have　been　impossible；　since　such　abstract　terms　had　little　or　no　existence　in　his　mind。　And　again　to　name　it　after　an　animal　was　the　most　obvious　thing　to　do；　simply　because　the　animals　were　by　far　the　most　important　features　or　accompaniments　of　his　own　life。　As　I　am　dealing　in　this　book　largely　with　certain　psychological　conditions　of　human　evolution；　it　has　to　be　pointed　out　that　to　primitive　man　the　animal　was　the　nearest　and　most　closely　related　of　all　objects。　Being　of　the　same　order　of　consciousness　as　himself；　the　animal　appealed　to　him　very　closely　as　his　mate　and　equal。　He　made　with　regard　to　it　little　or　no　distinction　from　himself。　We　see　this　very　clearly　in　the　case　of　children；　who　of　course　represent　the　savage　mind；　and　who　regard　animals　simply　as　their　mates　and　equals；　and　come　quickly　into　rapport　with　them；　not　differentiating　themselves　from　them。
  （2）　As　to　the　particular　animal　or　other　object　selected　in　order　to　give　a　name　to　the　Tribe；　this　would　no　doubt　be　largely　accidental。　Any　unusual　incident　might　superstitiously　precipitate　a　name。　We　can　hardly　imagine　the　Tribe　scratching　its　congregated　head　in　the　deliberate　effort　to　think　out　a　suitable　emblem　for　itself。　That　is　not　the　way　in　which　nicknames　are　invented　in　a　school　or　anywhere　else　to…day。　At　the　same　time　the　heraldic　appeal　of　a　certain　object　of　nature；　animate　or　inanimate；　would　be　deeply　and　widely　felt。　The　strength　of　the　lion；　the　fleetness　of　the　deer；　the　food…value　of　a　bear；　the　flight　of　a　bird；　the　awful　jaws　of　a　crocodile；　might　easily　mesmerize　a　whole　tribe。　Reinach　points　out；　with　great　justice；　that　many　tribes　placed　themselves　under　the　protection　of　animals　which　were　supposed　（rightly　or　wrongly）　to　act　as　guides　and　augurs；　foretelling　the　future。　〃Diodorus；〃　he　says；　〃distinctly　states　that　the　hawk；　in　Egypt；　was　venerated　because　it　foretold　the　future。〃　＇Birds　generally　act　as　weather…prophets。＇　〃In　Australia　and　Samoa　the　kangaroo；　the　crow　and　the　owl　premonish　their　fellow　clansmen　of　events　to　come。　At　one　time　the　Samoan　warriors　went　so　far　as　to　rear　owls　for　their　prophetic　qualities　in　war。〃　＇The　jackal；　or　'pathfinder'　whose　tracks　sometimes　lead　to　the　remains　of　a　food…　animal　slain　by　a　lion；　and　many　birds　and　insects；　have　a　value　of　this　kind。＇　〃The　use　of　animal　totems　for　purposes　of　augury　is；　in　all　likelihood；　of　great　antiquity。　Men　must　soon　have　realized　that　the　senses　of　animals　were　acuter　than　their　own；　nor　is　it　surprising　that　they　should　have　expected　their　totemsthat　is　to　say；　their　natural　alliesto　forewarn　them　both　of　unsuspected　dangers　and　of　those　provisions　of　nature；　WELLS　especially；　which　animals　seem　to　scent　by　instinct。〃＇1＇　And　again；　beyond　all　this；　I　have　little　doubt　that　there　are　subconscious　affinities　which　unite　certain　tribes　to　certain　animals　or　plants；　affinities　whose　origin　we　cannot　now　trace；　though　they　are　very　realthe　same　affinities　that　we　recognize　as　existing　between　individual　PERSONS　and　certain　objects　of　nature。　W。　H。　Hudsonhimself　in　many　respects　having　this　deep　and　primitive　relation　to　nature　speaks　in　a　very　interesting　and　autobiographical　volume＇2＇　of　the　extraordinary　fascination　exercised　upon　him　as　a　boy；　not　only　by　a　snake；　but　by　certain　trees；　and　especially　by　a　particular　flowering…plant　〃not　more　than　a　foot　in　height；　with　downy　soft　pale　green　leaves；　and　clusters　of　reddish　blossoms；　something　like　valerian。〃　。　。　。　〃One　of　my　sacred　flowers；〃　he　calls　it；　and　insists　on　the　〃inexplicable　attraction〃　which　it　had　for　him。　In　various　ways　of　this　kind　one　can　perceive　how　particular　totems　came　to　be　selected　by　particular　peoples。
  ＇1＇　See　Reinach；　Eng。　trans。；　op。　cit。；　pp。　20；　21。
  ＇2＇　Far　away　and　Long　ago　（1918）　chs。　xvi　and　xvii。
  （3）　As　to　the　tendency　to　divinize　these　totems；　this　arises　no　doubt　partly　out　of　question　（2）。　The　animal　or　other　object　admired　on　account　of　its　strength　or　swiftness；　or　adopted　as　guardian　of　the　tribe　because　of　its　keen　sight　or　prophetic　quality；　or　infinitely　prized　on　account　of　its　food…value；　or　felt　for　any　other　reason　to　have　a　peculiar　relation　and　affinity　to　the　tribe；　is　by　that　fact　SET　APART。　It　becomes　taboo。　It　must　not　be　killedexcept　under　necessity　and　by　sanction　of　the　whole　tribenor　injured；　and　all　dealings　with　it　must　be　fenced　round　with　regulations。　It　is　out　of　this　taboo　or　system　of　taboos　that；　according　to　Reinach；　religion　arose。　〃I　propose　（he　says）　to　define　religion　as：　A　SUM　OF　SCRUPLES　（TABOOS）　WHICH　IMPEDE　THE　FREE　EXERCISE　OF　OUR　FACULTIES。〃＇1＇　Obviously　this　definition　is　gravely　deficient；　simply　because　it　is　purely　negative；　and　leaves　out　of　account　the　positive　aspect　of　the　subject。　In　Man；　the　positive　content　of　religion　is　the　instinctive　sensewhether　conscious　or　subconsciousof　an　inner　unity　and　continuity　with　the　world　around。　This　is　the　stuff　out　of　which　religion　is　made。　The　scruples　or　taboos　which　〃impede　the　freedom〃　of　this　relation　are　the　negative　forces　which　give　outline　and　form　to　the　relation。　These　are　the　things　which　generate　the　RITES　AND　CEREMONIALS　of　religion；　and　as　far　as　Reinach　means　by　religion　MERELY　rites　and　ceremonies　he　is　correct；　but　clearly　he　only　covers　half　the　subject。　The　tendency　to　divinize　the　totem　is　at　least　as　much　dependent　on　the　positive　sense　of　unity　with　it；　as　on　the　negative　scruples　which　limit　the　relation　in　each　particular　case。　But　I　shall　return　to　this　subject　presently；　and　more　than　once；　with　the　view　of　clarifying　it。　Just　now　it　will　be　best　to　illustrate　the　nature　of　Totems　generally；　and　in　some　detail。
  ＇1＇　See　Orpheus　by　S。　Reinach；　p。　3。
  As　would　be　gathered　from　what　I　have　just　said；　there　is　found　among　all　the　more　primitive　peoples；　and　in　all　parts　of　the　world；　an　immense　variety　of　totem…names。　The　Dinkas；　for　instance；　are　a　rather　intelligent　well…grown　people　inhabiting　the　upper　reaches　of　the　Nile　in　the　vicinity　of　the　great　swamps。　According　to　Dr。　Seligman　their　clans　have　for　totems　the　lion；　the　elephant；　the　crocodile；　the　hippopotamus；　the　fox；　and　the　hyena；　as　well　as　certain　birds　which　infest　and　damage　the　corn；　some　plants　and　trees；　and　such　things　as　rain；　fire；　etc。　〃Each　clan　speaks　of　its　totem　as　its　ancestor；　and　refrains　＇as　a　rule＇　from　injuring　or　eating　it。〃＇1＇　The　members　of　the　Crocodile　clan　call　themselves　〃brothers　of　the　crocodile。〃　The　tribes　of　Bechuana…land　have　a　very　similar　list　of　totem…namesthe　buffalo；　the　fish；　the　porcupine；　the　wild　vine；　etc。　They　too　have　a　Crocodile　clan；　but　they　call　the　crocodile　their　FATHER！　The　tribes　of　Australia　much　the　same　again；　with　the　differences　suitable　to　their　country；　and　the　Red　Indians　of　North　America　the　same。　Garcilasso；　della　Vega；　the　Spanish　historian；　son　of　an　Inca　princess　by　one　of　the　Spanish　conquerors　of　Peru　and　author　of　the　well…known　book　Commentarias　Reales；　says　in　that　book　（i；　57）；　speaking　of　the　pre…Inca　period；　〃An　Indian　（of　Peru）　was　not　considered　honorable　unless　he　was　descended　from　a　fountain；　river　or　lake；　or　even　from　the　sea；　or　from　a　wild　animal；　as　a　bear；　lion；　tiger；　eagle；　or　the　bird　they　call　cuntur　（condor）；　or　some　other　bird　of　prey。〃＇2＇　According　to　Lewis　Morgan；　the　North　American　Indians　of　various　tribes　had　for　totems　the　wolf；　bear；　beaver；　turtle；　deer；　snipe；　heron；　hawk；　crane；　loon；　turkey；　muskrat；　pike；　catfish；　carp；　buffalo；　elk；　reindeer；　eagle；　hare；　rabbit；　snake；　reed…grass；　sand；　rock；　and　tobacco…plant。
  ＇1＇　See　The　Golden　Bough；　vol。　iv；　p。　31。
  ＇2＇　See　Andrew